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Nakaya T, Yabe M, Mashalidis EH, Sato T, Yamamoto K, Hikiji Y, Katsuyama A, Shinohara M, Minato Y, Takahashi S, Horiuchi M, Yokota SI, Lee SY, Ichikawa S. Synthesis of macrocyclic nucleoside antibacterials and their interactions with MraY. Nat Commun 2022; 13:7575. [PMID: 36539416 PMCID: PMC9768162 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-35227-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2022] [Accepted: 11/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The development of new antibacterial drugs with different mechanisms of action is urgently needed to address antimicrobial resistance. MraY is an essential membrane enzyme required for bacterial cell wall synthesis. Sphaerimicins are naturally occurring macrocyclic nucleoside inhibitors of MraY and are considered a promising target in antibacterial discovery. However, developing sphaerimicins as antibacterials has been challenging due to their complex macrocyclic structures. In this study, we construct their characteristic macrocyclic skeleton via two key reactions. Having then determined the structure of a sphaerimicin analogue bound to MraY, we use a structure-guided approach to design simplified sphaerimicin analogues. These analogues retain potency against MraY and exhibit potent antibacterial activity against Gram-positive bacteria, including clinically isolated drug resistant strains of S. aureus and E. faecium. Our study combines synthetic chemistry, structural biology, and microbiology to provide a platform for the development of MraY inhibitors as antibacterials against drug-resistant bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takeshi Nakaya
- grid.39158.360000 0001 2173 7691Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokkaido University, Kita-12, Nishi-6, Kita-ku, Sapporo, 060-0812 Japan
| | - Miyuki Yabe
- grid.39158.360000 0001 2173 7691Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokkaido University, Kita-12, Nishi-6, Kita-ku, Sapporo, 060-0812 Japan
| | - Ellene H. Mashalidis
- grid.26009.3d0000 0004 1936 7961Department of Biochemistry, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710 USA ,grid.410513.20000 0000 8800 7493Present Address: Pfizer Global Research & Development, Eastern Point Road, Groton, CT 06340 USA
| | - Toyotaka Sato
- grid.39158.360000 0001 2173 7691Laboratory of Veterinary Hygiene, School/Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Kita-18, Nishi-9, Kita-ku, Sapporo, 060-0818 Japan ,grid.39158.360000 0001 2173 7691Graduate School of Infectious Diseases, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, 060-0818 Japan
| | - Kazuki Yamamoto
- grid.39158.360000 0001 2173 7691Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokkaido University, Kita-12, Nishi-6, Kita-ku, Sapporo, 060-0812 Japan ,grid.39158.360000 0001 2173 7691Center for Research and Education on Drug Discovery, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokkaido University, Kita-12, Nishi-6, Kita-ku, Sapporo, 060-0812 Japan
| | - Yuta Hikiji
- grid.39158.360000 0001 2173 7691Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokkaido University, Kita-12, Nishi-6, Kita-ku, Sapporo, 060-0812 Japan
| | - Akira Katsuyama
- grid.39158.360000 0001 2173 7691Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokkaido University, Kita-12, Nishi-6, Kita-ku, Sapporo, 060-0812 Japan ,grid.39158.360000 0001 2173 7691Center for Research and Education on Drug Discovery, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokkaido University, Kita-12, Nishi-6, Kita-ku, Sapporo, 060-0812 Japan ,grid.39158.360000 0001 2173 7691Global Institution for Collaborative Research and Education (GI-CoRE), Hokkaido University, Kita-12, Nishi-6, Kita-ku, Sapporo, 060-0812 Sapporo, Japan
| | - Motoko Shinohara
- grid.256115.40000 0004 1761 798XDepartment of Microbiology, Fujita Health University School of Medicine, 1-98 Dengakugakubo, Kutsukake-cho, Toyoake, Aichi 470-1192 Japan
| | - Yusuke Minato
- grid.256115.40000 0004 1761 798XDepartment of Microbiology, Fujita Health University School of Medicine, 1-98 Dengakugakubo, Kutsukake-cho, Toyoake, Aichi 470-1192 Japan
| | - Satoshi Takahashi
- grid.470107.5Division of Laboratory Medicine, Sapporo Medical University Hospital, South-1, West-16, Chuo-ku, Sapporo, 060-8543 Japan ,grid.263171.00000 0001 0691 0855Department of Infection Control and Laboratory Medicine, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, South-1, West-16, Chuo-ku, Sapporo, 060-8543 Japan
| | - Motohiro Horiuchi
- grid.39158.360000 0001 2173 7691Laboratory of Veterinary Hygiene, School/Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Kita-18, Nishi-9, Kita-ku, Sapporo, 060-0818 Japan ,grid.39158.360000 0001 2173 7691Graduate School of Infectious Diseases, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, 060-0818 Japan
| | - Shin-ichi Yokota
- grid.263171.00000 0001 0691 0855Department of Microbiology, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, South-1, West-17, Chuo-ku, Sapporo, 060-8556 Japan
| | - Seok-Yong Lee
- grid.26009.3d0000 0004 1936 7961Department of Biochemistry, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710 USA
| | - Satoshi Ichikawa
- grid.39158.360000 0001 2173 7691Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokkaido University, Kita-12, Nishi-6, Kita-ku, Sapporo, 060-0812 Japan ,grid.39158.360000 0001 2173 7691Center for Research and Education on Drug Discovery, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokkaido University, Kita-12, Nishi-6, Kita-ku, Sapporo, 060-0812 Japan ,grid.39158.360000 0001 2173 7691Global Institution for Collaborative Research and Education (GI-CoRE), Hokkaido University, Kita-12, Nishi-6, Kita-ku, Sapporo, 060-0812 Sapporo, Japan
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2
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De Masi R, Orlando S. GANAB and N-Glycans Substrates Are Relevant in Human Physiology, Polycystic Pathology and Multiple Sclerosis: A Review. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:7373. [PMID: 35806376 PMCID: PMC9266668 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23137373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2022] [Revised: 06/22/2022] [Accepted: 06/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Glycans are one of the four fundamental macromolecular components of living matter, and they are highly regulated in the cell. Their functions are metabolic, structural and modulatory. In particular, ER resident N-glycans participate with the Glc3Man9GlcNAc2 highly conserved sequence, in protein folding process, where the physiological balance between glycosylation/deglycosylation on the innermost glucose residue takes place, according GANAB/UGGT concentration ratio. However, under abnormal conditions, the cell adapts to the glucose availability by adopting an aerobic or anaerobic regimen of glycolysis, or to external stimuli through internal or external recognition patterns, so it responds to pathogenic noxa with unfolded protein response (UPR). UPR can affect Multiple Sclerosis (MS) and several neurological and metabolic diseases via the BiP stress sensor, resulting in ATF6, PERK and IRE1 activation. Furthermore, the abnormal GANAB expression has been observed in MS, systemic lupus erythematous, male germinal epithelium and predisposed highly replicating cells of the kidney tubules and bile ducts. The latter is the case of Polycystic Liver Disease (PCLD) and Polycystic Kidney Disease (PCKD), where genetically induced GANAB loss affects polycystin-1 (PC1) and polycystin-2 (PC2), resulting in altered protein quality control and cyst formation phenomenon. Our topics resume the role of glycans in cell physiology, highlighting the N-glycans one, as a substrate of GANAB, which is an emerging key molecule in MS and other human pathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto De Masi
- Complex Operative Unit of Neurology, “F. Ferrari” Hospital, Casarano, 73042 Lecce, Italy;
- Laboratory of Neuroproteomics, Multiple Sclerosis Centre, “F. Ferrari” Hospital, Casarano, 73042 Lecce, Italy
| | - Stefania Orlando
- Laboratory of Neuroproteomics, Multiple Sclerosis Centre, “F. Ferrari” Hospital, Casarano, 73042 Lecce, Italy
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3
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Wang H, Chen D, Lu H. Anti-bacterial monoclonal antibodies: next generation therapy against superbugs. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2022; 106:3957-3972. [PMID: 35648146 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-022-11989-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2022] [Revised: 05/12/2022] [Accepted: 05/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Prior to the nineteenth century, infectious disease was one of the leading causes of death. Human life expectancy has roughly doubled over the past century as a result of the development of antibiotics and vaccines. However, the emergence of antibiotic-resistant superbugs brings new challenges. The side effects of broad-spectrum antibiotics, such as causing antimicrobial resistance and destroying the normal flora, often limit their applications. Furthermore, the development of new antibiotics has lagged far behind the emergence and spread of antibiotic resistance. On the other hand, the genome complexity of bacteria makes it difficult to create effective vaccines. Therefore, novel therapeutic agents in supplement to antibiotics and vaccines are urgently needed to improve the treatment of infections. In recent years, monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) have achieved remarkable clinical success in a variety of fields. In the treatment of infectious diseases, mAbs can play functions through multiple mechanisms, including toxins neutralization, virulence factors inhibition, complement-mediated killing activity, and opsonic phagocytosis. Toxins and bacterial surface components are good targets to generate antibodies against. The U.S. FDA has approved three monoclonal antibody drugs, and there are numerous candidates in the preclinical or clinical trial stages. This article reviews recent advances in the research and development of anti-bacterial monoclonal antibody drugs in order to provide a valuable reference for future studies in this area. KEY POINTS: • Novel drugs against antibiotic-resistant superbugs are urgently required • Monoclonal antibodies can treat bacterial infections through multiple mechanisms • There are many anti-bacterial monoclonal antibodies developed in recent years and some candidates have entered the preclinical or clinical stages of development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Wang
- Engineering Research Center of Cell and Therapeutic Antibody, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmacy, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai, 200240, China
- School of Pharmacy, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai, 200240, China
| | - Daijie Chen
- School of Pharmacy, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai, 200240, China
| | - Huili Lu
- Engineering Research Center of Cell and Therapeutic Antibody, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmacy, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai, 200240, China.
- School of Pharmacy, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai, 200240, China.
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4
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Chen Y, Li J, Zhang S, Hu J, Chen X, Lin T, Dang D, Fan J. Controlling expression and inhibiting function of the toxin reporter for simple detection of the promoters’ activities in Escherichia coli. Enzyme Microb Technol 2022; 158:110051. [DOI: 10.1016/j.enzmictec.2022.110051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2021] [Revised: 04/10/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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5
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Terasawa Y, Sataka C, Sato T, Yamamoto K, Fukushima Y, Nakajima C, Suzuki Y, Katsuyama A, Matsumaru T, Yakushiji F, Yokota SI, Ichikawa S. Elucidating the Structural Requirement of Uridylpeptide Antibiotics for Antibacterial Activity. J Med Chem 2020; 63:9803-9827. [PMID: 32787111 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.0c00973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The synthesis and biological evaluation of analogues of uridylpeptide antibiotics were described, and the molecular interaction between the 3'-hydroxy analogue of mureidomycin A (3'-hydroxymureidomycin A) and its target enzyme, phospho-MurNAc-pentapeptide transferase (MraY), was analyzed in detail. The structure-activity relationship (SAR) involving MraY inhibition suggests that the side chain at the urea-dipeptide moiety does not affect the MraY inhibition. However, the anti-Pseudomonas aeruginosa activity is in great contrast and the urea-dipeptide motif is a key contributor. It is also suggested that the nucleoside peptide permease NppA1A2BCD is responsible for the transport of 3'-hydroxymureidomycin A into the cytoplasm. A systematic SAR analysis of the urea-dipeptide moiety of 3'-hydroxymureidomycin A was further conducted and the antibacterial activity was determined. This study provides a guide for the rational design of analogues based on uridylpeptide antibiotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuma Terasawa
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokkaido University, Kita-12, Nishi-6, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0812, Japan
| | - Chisato Sataka
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokkaido University, Kita-12, Nishi-6, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0812, Japan
| | - Toyotaka Sato
- Department of Microbiology, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, South-1, West-17, Chuo-ku, Sapporo 060-8556, Japan
| | - Kazuki Yamamoto
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokkaido University, Kita-12, Nishi-6, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0812, Japan
| | - Yukari Fukushima
- Division of Bioresources, Hokkaido University Research Center for Zoonosis Control, Sapporo 001-0020, Japan
| | - Chie Nakajima
- Division of Bioresources, Hokkaido University Research Center for Zoonosis Control, Sapporo 001-0020, Japan.,Global Station for Zoonosis Control, Global Institution for Collaborative Research and Education (GI-CoRE), Hokkaido University, Kita-20, Nishi-10, Kita-ku, Sapporo 001-0020, Japan
| | - Yasuhiko Suzuki
- Division of Bioresources, Hokkaido University Research Center for Zoonosis Control, Sapporo 001-0020, Japan.,Global Station for Zoonosis Control, Global Institution for Collaborative Research and Education (GI-CoRE), Hokkaido University, Kita-20, Nishi-10, Kita-ku, Sapporo 001-0020, Japan
| | - Akira Katsuyama
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokkaido University, Kita-12, Nishi-6, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0812, Japan.,Center for Research and Education on Drug Discovery, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokkaido University, Kita-12, Nishi-6, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0812, Japan
| | - Takanori Matsumaru
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokkaido University, Kita-12, Nishi-6, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0812, Japan.,Center for Research and Education on Drug Discovery, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokkaido University, Kita-12, Nishi-6, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0812, Japan
| | - Fumika Yakushiji
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokkaido University, Kita-12, Nishi-6, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0812, Japan.,Center for Research and Education on Drug Discovery, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokkaido University, Kita-12, Nishi-6, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0812, Japan
| | - Shin-Ichi Yokota
- Department of Microbiology, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, South-1, West-17, Chuo-ku, Sapporo 060-8556, Japan
| | - Satoshi Ichikawa
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokkaido University, Kita-12, Nishi-6, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0812, Japan.,Center for Research and Education on Drug Discovery, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokkaido University, Kita-12, Nishi-6, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0812, Japan.,Global Station for Biosurfaces and Drug Discovery, Global Institution for Collaborative Research and Education (GI-CoRE), Hokkaido University, Kita-12, Nishi-6, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0812, Japan
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6
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Heib A, Niro G, Weck SC, Koppermann S, Ducho C. Muraymycin Nucleoside Antibiotics: Structure-Activity Relationship for Variations in the Nucleoside Unit. Molecules 2019; 25:molecules25010022. [PMID: 31861655 PMCID: PMC6983020 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25010022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2019] [Revised: 12/10/2019] [Accepted: 12/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Muraymycins are a subclass of naturally occurring nucleoside antibiotics with promising antibacterial activity. They inhibit the bacterial enzyme translocase I (MraY), a clinically yet unexploited target mediating an essential intracellular step of bacterial peptidoglycan biosynthesis. Several structurally simplified muraymycin analogues have already been synthesized for structure–activity relationship (SAR) studies. We now report on novel derivatives with unprecedented variations in the nucleoside unit. For the synthesis of these new muraymycin analogues, we employed a bipartite approach facilitating the introduction of different nucleosyl amino acid motifs. This also included thymidine- and 5-fluorouridine-derived nucleoside core structures. Using an in vitro assay for MraY activity, it was found that the introduction of substituents in the 5-position of the pyrimidine nucleobase led to a significant loss of inhibitory activity towards MraY. The loss of nucleobase aromaticity (by reduction of the uracil C5-C6 double bond) resulted in a ca. tenfold decrease in inhibitory potency. In contrast, removal of the 2′-hydroxy group furnished retained activity, thus demonstrating that modifications of the ribose moiety might be well-tolerated. Overall, these new SAR insights will guide the future design of novel muraymycin analogues for their potential development towards antibacterial drug candidates.
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7
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Leyerer K, Koppermann S, Ducho C. Solid Phase‐Supported Synthesis of Muraymycin Analogues. European J Org Chem 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/ejoc.201901256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kristin Leyerer
- Department of Pharmacy Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry Saarland University Campus C2 3 66123 Saarbrücken Germany
| | - Stefan Koppermann
- Department of Pharmacy Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry Saarland University Campus C2 3 66123 Saarbrücken Germany
| | - Christian Ducho
- Department of Pharmacy Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry Saarland University Campus C2 3 66123 Saarbrücken Germany
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Helal AM, Sayed AM, Omara M, Elsebaei MM, Mayhoub AS. Peptidoglycan pathways: there are still more! RSC Adv 2019; 9:28171-28185. [PMID: 35530449 PMCID: PMC9071014 DOI: 10.1039/c9ra04518j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2019] [Accepted: 08/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The discovery of 3rd and 4th generations of currently existing classes of antibiotics has not hindered bacterial resistance, which is escalating at an alarming global level. This review follows WHO recommendations through implementing new criteria for newly discovered antibiotics. These recommendations focus on abandoning old scaffolds and hitting new targets. In light of these recommendations, this review discusses seven bacterial proteins that no commercial antibiotics have targeted yet, alongside their reported chemical scaffolds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed M Helal
- Department of Pharmaceutical Organic Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, Al-Azhar University Cairo 11884 Egypt
| | - Ahmed M Sayed
- Department of Pharmaceutical Organic Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, Al-Azhar University Cairo 11884 Egypt
| | - Mariam Omara
- Department of Pharmaceutical Organic Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, Al-Azhar University Cairo 11884 Egypt
| | - Mohamed M Elsebaei
- Department of Pharmaceutical Organic Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, Al-Azhar University Cairo 11884 Egypt
| | - Abdelrahman S Mayhoub
- Department of Pharmaceutical Organic Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, Al-Azhar University Cairo 11884 Egypt
- University of Science and Technology, Zewail City of Science and Technology Giza Egypt
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9
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Patel B, Grant G, Zunk M, Rudrawar S. Stereoselective Approaches toward the Synthesis of Nucleoside Antibiotic Core Aminoribosyl Glycyluridine. European J Org Chem 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/ejoc.201900708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Bhautikkumar Patel
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmacology Griffith University Gold Coast QLD 4222 Australia
- Quality Use of Medicines Network Griffith University Gold Coast QLD 4222 Australia
| | - Gary Grant
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmacology Griffith University Gold Coast QLD 4222 Australia
- Quality Use of Medicines Network Griffith University Gold Coast QLD 4222 Australia
| | - Matthew Zunk
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmacology Griffith University Gold Coast QLD 4222 Australia
- Quality Use of Medicines Network Griffith University Gold Coast QLD 4222 Australia
- Menzies Health Institute Queensland Griffith University Gold Coast QLD 4222 Australia
| | - Santosh Rudrawar
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmacology Griffith University Gold Coast QLD 4222 Australia
- Quality Use of Medicines Network Griffith University Gold Coast QLD 4222 Australia
- Menzies Health Institute Queensland Griffith University Gold Coast QLD 4222 Australia
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10
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Patel B, Ryan P, Makwana V, Zunk M, Rudrawar S, Grant G. Caprazamycins: Promising lead structures acting on a novel antibacterial target MraY. Eur J Med Chem 2019; 171:462-474. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2019.01.071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2018] [Revised: 01/24/2019] [Accepted: 01/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Wiker F, Hauck N, Grond S, Gust B. Caprazamycins: Biosynthesis and structure activity relationship studies. Int J Med Microbiol 2019; 309:319-324. [PMID: 31138496 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijmm.2019.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2019] [Revised: 05/14/2019] [Accepted: 05/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell wall biosynthesis represents a valid target for antibacterial action but only a limited number of chemical structure classes selectively interact with specific enzymes or protein structures like transporters of the cell envelope. The integral membrane protein MraY translocase is essential for peptidoglycan biosynthesis catalysing the transfer of the peptidoglycan precursor phospho-MurNAc-pentapeptide to the lipid carrier undecaprenyl phosphate, thereby generating the cell wall intermediate lipid I. Not present in eukaryotic cells, MraY is a member of the superfamily of yet not well-understood integral membrane enzymes which involve proteins for bacterial lipopolysaccharide and teichoic acid or eukaryotic N-linked saccharides biosynthesis. Different natural nucleoside antibiotics as inhibitors of MraY translocase have been discovered comprising a glycosylated heterocyclic pyrimidin base among other potential lipid-, peptidic- or sugar moieties. Caprazamycins are liponucleoside antibiotics isolated from Streptomyces sp. MK730-62F2. They possess activity in vitro against Gram-positive bacteria, in particular against the genus Mycobacterium including M. intracellulare, M. avium and M. tuberculosis. Structural elucidation revealed the (+)-caprazol core skeleton as a unique moiety, the caprazamycins share with other MraY inhibitors such as the liposidomycins, A-90289 and the muraminomicins. They also share structural features such as uridyl-, aminoribosyl- and fatty acyl-moieties with other MraY translocase inhibitors like FR-900493 and the muraymycins. Intensive studies on their biosynthesis during the last decade identified not only common initial biosynthetic steps, but also revealed possible branching points towards individual biosynthesis of the respective compound. Structural diversity of caprazamycins was generated by feeding experiments, genetic engineering of the biosynthetic gene clusters and chemical synthesis for structure activity relationship studies with its target, MraY translocase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franziska Wiker
- Pharmaceutical Biology, Pharmaceutical Institute, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Nils Hauck
- Pharmaceutical Biology, Pharmaceutical Institute, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Stephanie Grond
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Bertolt Gust
- Pharmaceutical Biology, Pharmaceutical Institute, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany.
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12
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Linder R, Ducho C. Unified Synthesis of Densely Functionalized Amino Acid Building Blocks for the Preparation of Caprazamycin Nucleoside Antibiotics. European J Org Chem 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/ejoc.201801667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ruth Linder
- Department of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry; Saarland University; Campus C2 3 66123 Saarbrücken Germany
| | - Christian Ducho
- Department of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry; Saarland University; Campus C2 3 66123 Saarbrücken Germany
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13
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Wiegmann D, Koppermann S, Ducho C. Aminoribosylated Analogues of Muraymycin Nucleoside Antibiotics. Molecules 2018; 23:molecules23123085. [PMID: 30486316 PMCID: PMC6320880 DOI: 10.3390/molecules23123085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2018] [Revised: 11/21/2018] [Accepted: 11/22/2018] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Nucleoside antibiotics are uridine-derived natural products that inhibit the bacterial membrane protein MraY. MraY is a key enzyme in the membrane-associated intracellular stages of peptidoglycan biosynthesis and therefore considered to be a promising, yet unexploited target for novel antibacterial agents. Muraymycins are one subclass of such naturally occurring MraY inhibitors. As part of structure-activity relationship (SAR) studies on muraymycins and their analogues, we now report on novel derivatives with different attachment of one characteristic structural motif, i.e., the aminoribose moiety normally linked to the muraymycin glycyluridine core unit. Based on considerations derived from an X-ray co-crystal structure, we designed and synthesised muraymycin analogues having the aminoribose attached (via a linker) to either the glycyluridine amino group or to the uracil nucleobase. Reference compounds bearing the non-aminoribosylated linker units were also prepared. It was found that the novel aminoribosylated analogues were inactive as MraY inhibitors in vitro, but that the glycyluridine-modified reference compound retained most of the inhibitory potency relative to the unmodified parent muraymycin analogue. These results point to 6′-N-alkylated muraymycin analogues as a potential novel variation of the muraymycin scaffold for future SAR optimisation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Wiegmann
- Department of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Saarland University, Campus C2 3, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany.
| | - Stefan Koppermann
- Department of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Saarland University, Campus C2 3, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany.
| | - Christian Ducho
- Department of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Saarland University, Campus C2 3, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany.
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Analogues of Muraymycin Nucleoside Antibiotics with Epimeric Uridine-Derived Core Structures. Molecules 2018; 23:molecules23112868. [PMID: 30400295 PMCID: PMC6278576 DOI: 10.3390/molecules23112868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2018] [Revised: 10/28/2018] [Accepted: 10/30/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Nucleoside analogues have found widespread application as antiviral and antitumor agents, but not yet as antibacterials. Naturally occurring uridine-derived ‘nucleoside antibiotics’ target the bacterial membrane protein MraY, an enzyme involved in peptidoglycan biosynthesis and a promising target for the development of novel antibacterial agents. Muraymycins represent a nucleoside-peptide subgroup of such MraY-inhibiting natural products. As part of detailed structure-activity relationship (SAR) studies on muraymycins and their analogues, we now report novel insights into the effects of stereochemical variations in the nucleoside core structure. Using a simplified version of the muraymycin scaffold, it was shown that some formal inversions of stereochemistry led to about one order of magnitude loss in inhibitory potency towards the target enzyme MraY. In contrast, epimers of the core motif with retained inhibitory activity were also identified. These 5′,6′-anti-configured analogues might serve as novel chemically tractable variations of the muraymycin scaffold for the future development of uridine-derived drug candidates.
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15
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Hering J, Dunevall E, Ek M, Brändén G. Structural basis for selective inhibition of antibacterial target MraY, a membrane-bound enzyme involved in peptidoglycan synthesis. Drug Discov Today 2018; 23:1426-1435. [DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2018.05.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2017] [Revised: 04/13/2018] [Accepted: 05/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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16
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Ray LC, Das D, Entova S, Lukose V, Lynch AJ, Imperiali B, Allen KN. Membrane association of monotopic phosphoglycosyl transferase underpins function. Nat Chem Biol 2018; 14:538-541. [PMID: 29769739 PMCID: PMC6202225 DOI: 10.1038/s41589-018-0054-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2017] [Accepted: 03/14/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Polyprenol phosphate phosphoglycosyl transferases (PGTs) catalyze the first membrane-committed step in assembly of essential glycoconjugates. Currently there is no structure-function information to describe how monotopic PGTs coordinate the reaction between membrane-embedded and soluble substrates. We describe the structure and mode of membrane association of PglC, a PGT from Campylobacter concisus. The structure reveals a unique architecture, provides mechanistic insight and identifies ligand-binding determinants for PglC and the monotopic PGT superfamily.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leah C Ray
- Program in Biomolecular Pharmacology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Debasis Das
- Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Sonya Entova
- Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Vinita Lukose
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Andrew J Lynch
- Department of Chemistry, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Barbara Imperiali
- Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA.
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA.
| | - Karen N Allen
- Program in Biomolecular Pharmacology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA.
- Department of Chemistry, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA.
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17
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Koppermann S, Cui Z, Fischer PD, Wang X, Ludwig J, Thorson JS, Van Lanen SG, Ducho C. Insights into the Target Interaction of Naturally Occurring Muraymycin Nucleoside Antibiotics. ChemMedChem 2018; 13:779-784. [PMID: 29438582 PMCID: PMC6019934 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201700793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2017] [Revised: 02/02/2018] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Muraymycins are a subclass of antimicrobially active uridine-derived natural products. Biological data on several muraymycin analogues have been reported, including some inhibitory in vitro activities toward their target protein, the bacterial membrane enzyme MraY. However, a structure-activity relationship (SAR) study on naturally occurring muraymycins based on such in vitro data has been missing so far. In this work, we report a detailed SAR investigation on representatives of the four muraymycin subgroups A-D using a fluorescence-based in vitro MraY assay. For some muraymycins, inhibition of MraY with IC50 values in the low-picomolar range was observed. These inhibitory potencies were compared with antibacterial activities and were correlated to modelling data derived from a previously reported X-ray crystal structure of MraY in complex with a muraymycin inhibitor. Overall, these results will pave the way for the development of muraymycin analogues with optimized properties as antibacterial drug candidates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Koppermann
- Department of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Saarland University, Campus C2 3, 66123, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Zheng Cui
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, 789 S. Limestone Street, Lexington, KY, 40536, USA
| | - Patrick D Fischer
- Department of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Saarland University, Campus C2 3, 66123, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Xiachang Wang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Functional Substance of Chinese Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, 210023, P.R. China
- Center for Pharmaceutical Research and Innovation, College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, 789 S. Limestone Street, Lexington, KY, 40536, USA
| | - Jannine Ludwig
- Department of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Saarland University, Campus C2 3, 66123, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Jon S Thorson
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, 789 S. Limestone Street, Lexington, KY, 40536, USA
- Center for Pharmaceutical Research and Innovation, College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, 789 S. Limestone Street, Lexington, KY, 40536, USA
| | - Steven G Van Lanen
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, 789 S. Limestone Street, Lexington, KY, 40536, USA
| | - Christian Ducho
- Department of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Saarland University, Campus C2 3, 66123, Saarbrücken, Germany
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18
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Michailidou F, Chung C, Brown MJB, Bent AF, Naismith JH, Leavens WJ, Lynn SM, Sharma SV, Goss RJM. Pac13 is a Small, Monomeric Dehydratase that Mediates the Formation of the 3'-Deoxy Nucleoside of Pacidamycins. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2017; 56:12492-12497. [PMID: 28786545 PMCID: PMC5656905 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201705639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2017] [Revised: 07/28/2017] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
The uridyl peptide antibiotics (UPAs), of which pacidamycin is a member, have a clinically unexploited mode of action and an unusual assembly. Perhaps the most striking feature of these molecules is the biosynthetically unique 3'-deoxyuridine that they share. This moiety is generated by an unusual, small and monomeric dehydratase, Pac13, which catalyses the dehydration of uridine-5'-aldehyde. Here we report the structural characterisation of Pac13 with a series of ligands, and gain insight into the enzyme's mechanism demonstrating that H42 is critical to the enzyme's activity and that the reaction is likely to proceed via an E1cB mechanism. The resemblance of the 3'-deoxy pacidamycin moiety with the synthetic anti-retrovirals, presents a potential opportunity for the utilisation of Pac13 in the biocatalytic generation of antiviral compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Freideriki Michailidou
- School of ChemistryUniversity of St AndrewsNorth HaughSt AndrewsFifeKY16 9STUK
- GSKStevenageSG1 2NYUK
| | | | | | - Andrew F. Bent
- School of ChemistryUniversity of St AndrewsNorth HaughSt AndrewsFifeKY16 9STUK
| | - James H. Naismith
- School of ChemistryUniversity of St AndrewsNorth HaughSt AndrewsFifeKY16 9STUK
| | | | | | - Sunil V. Sharma
- School of ChemistryUniversity of St AndrewsNorth HaughSt AndrewsFifeKY16 9STUK
| | - Rebecca J. M. Goss
- School of ChemistryUniversity of St AndrewsNorth HaughSt AndrewsFifeKY16 9STUK
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19
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Michailidou F, Chung C, Brown MJB, Bent AF, Naismith JH, Leavens WJ, Lynn SM, Sharma SV, Goss RJM. Pac13 is a Small, Monomeric Dehydratase that Mediates the Formation of the 3′‐Deoxy Nucleoside of Pacidamycins. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201705639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Freideriki Michailidou
- School of Chemistry University of St Andrews North Haugh St Andrews Fife KY16 9ST UK
- GSK Stevenage SG1 2NY UK
| | | | | | - Andrew F. Bent
- School of Chemistry University of St Andrews North Haugh St Andrews Fife KY16 9ST UK
| | - James H. Naismith
- School of Chemistry University of St Andrews North Haugh St Andrews Fife KY16 9ST UK
| | | | | | - Sunil V. Sharma
- School of Chemistry University of St Andrews North Haugh St Andrews Fife KY16 9ST UK
| | - Rebecca J. M. Goss
- School of Chemistry University of St Andrews North Haugh St Andrews Fife KY16 9ST UK
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20
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Cao J, Yi F, Tian Q, Dang G, Si W, Liu S, Yu S. Targeting the gram-negative bacteria peptidoglycan synthase MraY as a new approach for monoclonal antibody anti-bacterial activity. Hum Vaccin Immunother 2017; 13:2086-2091. [PMID: 28605292 DOI: 10.1080/21645515.2017.1337613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of antibiotics to target bacteria is a well-validated approach for controlling infections in animals and humans. Peptidoglycan biosynthesis is a crucial process in bacteria, and the conserved peptidoglycan synthase MraY is an attractive target for drug design. However, due to the lack of detailed MraY structural information, antibiotics targeting MraY have not yet been developed. In the present study, 2 hydrophilic regions of MraY from Escherichia coli were expressed as a fusion protein and used to raise a monoclonal antibody in mice. We confirmed that the MraY amino acid sequence PESHFSKRGTPT forms the core epitope recognized by the monoclonal antibody M-H11. Furthermore, our results show that M-H11 effectively controls Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3) plysS infection, both in vitro and in vivo. Our results may be of great value in the search for novel approaches used to control bacterial infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Cao
- a Division of Bacterial Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology , Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences , Harbin , PR China
| | - Fei Yi
- a Division of Bacterial Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology , Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences , Harbin , PR China.,b College of Animal Science and Technology of Heilongjiang Bayi Agriculture University , Daqing , China
| | - Qiufeng Tian
- a Division of Bacterial Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology , Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences , Harbin , PR China.,b College of Animal Science and Technology of Heilongjiang Bayi Agriculture University , Daqing , China
| | - Guanghui Dang
- a Division of Bacterial Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology , Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences , Harbin , PR China
| | - Wei Si
- a Division of Bacterial Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology , Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences , Harbin , PR China
| | - Siguo Liu
- a Division of Bacterial Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology , Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences , Harbin , PR China
| | - Shenye Yu
- a Division of Bacterial Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology , Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences , Harbin , PR China
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21
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Bugg TDH. Nucleoside Natural Product Antibiotics Targetting Microbial Cell Wall Biosynthesis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/7355_2017_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/23/2023]
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22
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Henrich E, Peetz O, Hein C, Laguerre A, Hoffmann B, Hoffmann J, Dötsch V, Bernhard F, Morgner N. Analyzing native membrane protein assembly in nanodiscs by combined non-covalent mass spectrometry and synthetic biology. eLife 2017; 6. [PMID: 28067619 PMCID: PMC5291076 DOI: 10.7554/elife.20954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2016] [Accepted: 01/04/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Membrane proteins frequently assemble into higher order homo- or hetero-oligomers within their natural lipid environment. This complex formation can modulate their folding, activity as well as substrate selectivity. Non-disruptive methods avoiding critical steps, such as membrane disintegration, transfer into artificial environments or chemical modifications are therefore essential to analyze molecular mechanisms of native membrane protein assemblies. The combination of cell-free synthetic biology, nanodisc-technology and non-covalent mass spectrometry provides excellent synergies for the analysis of membrane protein oligomerization within defined membranes. We exemplify our strategy by oligomeric state characterization of various membrane proteins including ion channels, transporters and membrane-integrated enzymes assembling up to hexameric complexes. We further indicate a lipid-dependent dimer formation of MraY translocase correlating with the enzymatic activity. The detergent-free synthesis of membrane protein/nanodisc samples and the analysis by LILBID mass spectrometry provide a versatile platform for the analysis of membrane proteins in a native environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erik Henrich
- Institute of Biophysical Chemistry, Centre for Biomolecular Magnetic Resonance, J W Goethe-University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Oliver Peetz
- Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, J W Goethe-University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Christopher Hein
- Institute of Biophysical Chemistry, Centre for Biomolecular Magnetic Resonance, J W Goethe-University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Aisha Laguerre
- Institute of Biophysical Chemistry, Centre for Biomolecular Magnetic Resonance, J W Goethe-University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Beate Hoffmann
- Institute of Biophysical Chemistry, Centre for Biomolecular Magnetic Resonance, J W Goethe-University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Jan Hoffmann
- Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, J W Goethe-University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Volker Dötsch
- Institute of Biophysical Chemistry, Centre for Biomolecular Magnetic Resonance, J W Goethe-University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Frank Bernhard
- Institute of Biophysical Chemistry, Centre for Biomolecular Magnetic Resonance, J W Goethe-University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Nina Morgner
- Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, J W Goethe-University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
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23
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Woodward L, Naismith JH. Bacterial polysaccharide synthesis and export. Curr Opin Struct Biol 2016; 40:81-88. [PMID: 27544430 DOI: 10.1016/j.sbi.2016.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2016] [Accepted: 07/21/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
All domains of life make carbohydrate polymers and by anchoring them to lipid molecules they can decorate the outside of the cell. Polysaccharides are linked to proteins by glycosylation, a process found in both bacteria and in higher organisms. Bacteria do have other distinct uses for carbohydrate polymers; in gram-negative bacteria glycolipids form the outer leaflet of the outer membrane and in many pathogens (both gram-positive and gram-negative) sugar polymers are used to build a capsule or are secreted into the environment. There are parallels, but of course differences, in the biosynthesis of glycolipids between prokaryotes and eukaryotes, which occur at the membrane. The translocation of large sugar polymers across the outer membrane is unique to gram-negative bacteria. Recent progress in the molecular understanding of both the biosynthesis at the inner membrane and the translocation across the outer membrane are reviewed here.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Woodward
- Biomedical Science Research Complex, North Haugh, The University of St Andrews, St Andrews, United Kingdom
| | - James H Naismith
- Biomedical Science Research Complex, North Haugh, The University of St Andrews, St Andrews, United Kingdom.
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