Bisphenol AF: Halogen bonding effect is a major driving force for the dual ERα-agonist and ERβ-antagonist activities

Halogenated Antimicrobial Agents to Combat Drug-Resistant Pathogens

Antimicrobial resistance presents us with a potential global crisis as it undermines the abilities of conventional antibiotics to combat pathogenic microbes. The history of antimicrobial agents is replete with examples of scaffolds containing halogens. In this review, we discuss the impacts of halogen atoms in various antibiotic types and antimicrobial scaffolds and their modes of action, structure-activity relationships, and the contributions of halogen atoms in antimicrobial activity and drug resistance. Other halogenated molecules, including carbohydrates, peptides, lipids, and polymeric complexes, are also reviewed, and the effects of halogenated scaffolds on pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and factors affecting antimicrobial and antivirulence activities are presented. Furthermore, the potential of halogenation to circumvent antimicrobial resistance and rejuvenate impotent antibiotics is addressed. This review provides an overview of the significance of halogenation, the abilities of halogens to interact in biomolecular settings and enhance pharmacological properties, and their potential therapeutic usages in preventing a postantibiotic era. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Antimicrobial resistance and the increasing impotence of antibiotics are critical threats to global health. The roles and importance of halogen atoms in antimicrobial drug scaffolds have been established, but comparatively little is known of their pharmacological impacts on drug resistance and antivirulence activities. This review is the first to extensively evaluate the roles of halogen atoms in various antibiotic classes and pharmacological scaffolds and to provide an overview of their ability to overcome antimicrobial resistance.

Maternal BPAF exposure impaired synaptic development and caused behavior abnormality in offspring

Bisphenol A (BPA) has been widely restricted, leading to a significant increase in the production of bisphenol AF (BPAF), one of the most common bisphenol analogs use as a substitute for BPA. However, there is limit evidence on the neurotoxicity of BPAF, especially the potential effects of maternal exposed to BPAF on offspring. A maternal BPAF exposure model was used to evaluate its effects on long-term neurobehaviors in offspring. We found that maternal BPAF exposure resulted in immune disorders, characterized by abnormal CD4⁺T cell subsets, and their offspring exhibited anxiety- and depression-like behaviors, as well as impairments in learning-memory, sociability and social novelty. Further, brain bulk RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) and hippocampus single-nucleus RNA-sequencing (snRNA-seq) of offspring showed that differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were enriched in pathways related to synaptic and neurodevelopment. Synaptic ultra-structure of offspring was damaged after maternal BPAF exposure. In conclusion, maternal BPAF exposure induced behavior abnormality in adult offspring, together with synaptic and neurodevelopment defects, which might be related to maternal immune dysfunction. Our results provide a comprehensive insight into the neurotoxicity mechanism of maternal BPAF exposure during gestation. Given the increasing and ubiquitous exposure to BPAF, especially during sensitive periods of growth and development, the safety of BPAF requires urgent attention.

Bisphenol AF Promoted the Growth of Uterus and Activated Estrogen Signaling Related Targets in Various Tissues of Nude Mice with SK-BR-3 Xenograft Tumor

Environmental estrogens can promote the growth, migration, and invasion of breast cancer. However, few studies evaluate adverse health impacts of environmental estrogens on other organs of breast cancer patients. Therefore, the present study investigated the effects of environmental estrogen bisphenol AF (BPAF) on the main organs of female Balb/cA nude mice with SK-BR-3 xenograft tumor by detecting the organ development and gene expression of targets associated with G protein-coupled estrogen receptor 1 (GPER1)-mediated phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/protein kinase B (PI3K/Akt) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways in hypothalamus, ovary, uterus, liver, and kidney. The results showed that BPAF at 20 mg/kg bw/day markedly increased the uterine weight and the uterine coefficient of nude mice compared to SK-BR-3 bearing tumor control, indicating that BPAF promoted the growth of uterus due to its estrogenic activity. Additionally, BPAF significantly up-regulated the mRNA relative expression of most targets related to nuclear estrogen receptor alpha (ERα) and GPER1-mediated signaling pathways in the hypothalamus, followed by the ovary and uterus, and the least in the liver and kidney, indicating that BPAF activated different estrogen activity related targets in different tissues. In addition, BPAF markedly up-regulated the mRNA expression of GPER1 in all tested tissues, and the molecular docking showed that BPAF could dock into GPER1. Because gene change is an early event of toxicity response, these findings suggested that BPAF might aggravate the condition of breast cancer patients through exerting its estrogenic activity via the GPER1 pathway in various organs.

In utero bisphenol AF exposure causes fetal Leydig cell dysfunction and induces multinucleated gonocytes by generating oxidative stress and reducing the SIRT1/PGC1α signals

Bisphenol AF (BPAF) is one of the primary alternatives of bisphenol A. It has been ubiquitously detected in the environment and is an emerging endocrine disrupting compound. However, the effects of BPAF exposure on fetal Leydig cells and germ cells and the underlying mechanisms remain largely unknown. To this end, pregnant Sprague-Dawley rats were exposed to 10, 50, and 200 mg/kg/d BPAF by gavage from gestational days 14 to 21. The neonatal rats were sacrificed on day 1 at birth. The results showed that serum testosterone levels were significantly decreased at 50 and 200 mg/kg/d, the expression of Scarb1, Star, Cyp17a1, Hsd17b3, and Dhh and their proteins were markedly down-regulated at 50 and 100 mg/kg/d. BPAF exposure also significantly increased the incidence of multinucleated gonocytes at 200 mg/kg/d. We further detected significant increase of testicular malondialdehyde levels and reduction of antioxidants, including SOD1, SOD2, and CAT at 50 and/or 200 mg/kg/d. Furthermore, BPAF markedly reduced the levels of SIRT1 and PGC1α at 200 mg/kg/d while significantly increased AMPK phosphorylation in the testes at 50 and 200 mg/kg/d. In conclusion, our results provide novel in vivo data that BPAF can induce fetal Leydig cell dysfunction by interfering with steroidogenic networks and induce the formation of multinucleated gonocytes after suppressing the antioxidant defense system and reducing SIRT1 and PGC1α signals and increasing the phosphorylation of AMPK, which highlights the potential health risk of environmental exposure to BPAF in inducing male reproductive tract malformation.

Bisphenol AF exposure causes fasting hyperglycemia in zebrafish (Danio rerio) by interfering with glycometabolic networks

Bisphenol AF (BPAF), one of the main alternatives to bisphenol A, has been frequently detected in various environmental media, including the human body, and is an emerging contaminant. Epidemiological investigations have recently shown the implications of exposure to BPAF in the incidence of diabetes mellitus in humans, indicating that BPAF may be a potential diabetogenic endocrine disruptor. However, the effects of BPAF exposure on glucose homeostasis and their underlying mechanisms in animals remain largely unknown, which may limit our understanding of the health risks of BPAF. To this end, zebrafish (Danio rerio), an emerging and valuable model in studying animal glycometabolism and diabetes, were exposed to environmentally relevant concentrations (5 and 50 μg/L) and 500 μg/L BPAF for 28 d. Several key toxicity endpoints of blood glucose metabolism were detected in our study, and the results showed significantly increased fasting blood glucose levels, hepatic glycogen contents and hepatosomatic indexes and decreased muscular glycogen contents in the BPAF-exposed zebrafish. The results of quantitative real-time PCR showed the abnormal expression of genes involved in glycometabolic networks, which might promote hepatic gluconeogenesis and inhibit glycogenesis and glycolysis in the muscle and/or liver. Furthermore, the failure of insulin regulation, including plasma insulin deficiency and impaired insulin signaling pathways in target tissues, may be a potential mechanism underlying BPAF-induced dysfunctional glycometabolism. In summary, our results provide novel in vivo evidence that BPAF can cause fasting hyperglycemia by interfering with glycometabolic networks, which emphasizes the potential health risks of environmental exposure to BPAF in inducing diabetes mellitus.

Characterization of diphenyl phthalate as an agonist for estrogen receptor: an in vitro and in silico study

Phthalate esters (PAEs) are important pollutants in the environment, which can interfere with the endocrine system by mimicking estrogen. However, limited information is available on modulating the estrogen receptor (ER) of five PAEs including di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), diisononyl phthalate (DINP), benzyl butyl phthalate (BBP), diphenyl phthalate (DPhP) and dicyclohexyl phthalate (DCHP). This study evaluated the agonistic effects of PAEs on human ER. The cytotoxicity assay showed that there were a significant inhibition of the cell proliferation with treatment of five PAEs. Moreover, DPhP does-dependently enhanced ER-mediated transcriptional activity in the reporter gene assay. The increased expression of estrogen-responsive genes (TFF1, CTSD, and GREB1) was also observed in MCF-7 cells treated with DPhP. The result of molecular docking showed that DPhP tended to bind to the agonist conformation of ER compared with the antagonist conformation of ER, demonstrating its agonist characteristic that has been confirmed in the reporter gene assay. Thus, we found that DPhP may be evaluated as an ER agonist in vitro and it can interfere with the normal function of human ER.

Molecular mechanism study of BPAF-induced proliferation of ERα-negative SKBR-3 human breast cancer cells in vitro/in vivo

Bisphenol AF (BPAF) is a known estrogen disruptor of the ERα pathway. The aim of the present study was to characterize the proliferation effects of BPAF on ERα-negative SKBR-3 breast cancer cells with mechanistic insights. BPAF at low concentrations (0.001-0.1 μM) significantly induced the proliferation of SKBR-3 cells. In a SKBR-3 tumor model in BALB/c nude mice, BPAF at 100 mg/kg body weight/day also significantly promoted the growth of SKBR-3 tumors. Low concentrations of BPAF markedly increased the expression of G protein-coupled estrogen receptor (GPER1), c-Myc, CyclinD1 and c-Fos proteins, and enhanced phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (Erk) and protein kinase B (Akt) in SKBR-3 cells. Further, BPAF significantly upregulated mRNA levels of related target genes in SKBR-3 cells and SKBR-3 tumor tissues in nude mice. The GPER1 inhibitor G15 and phosphatidylinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) inhibitor wortmannin (WM) inhibited phosphorylation of Erk and Akt. The specific signal inhibitors also markedly decreased the expression of target genes and weakened the cell proliferation induced by low-concentration BPAF. The findings showed that GPER1 could independently regulate BPAF-induced proliferation of SKBR-3 cells without requiring ERα. These results provide mechanistic insights into the effects of BPAF regarding ERα-negative human breast cancer development.

ERα-agonist and ERβ-antagonist bifunctional next-generation bisphenols with no halogens: BPAP, BPB, and BPZ

As demonstrated for bisphenol AF (BPAF), the electrostatic halogen bond based on the London dispersion force of halogen atoms was found to be a major driving force of their bifunctional ERα-agonist and ERβ-antagonist activities. Because similar electronic effects are anticipated for hydrocarbon groups (alkyl or aryl groups), we hypothesized that bisphenol compounds consisting of such groups also work bifunctionally. In the present study, we examined bisphenol AP (BPAP), B (BPB), and Z (BPZ). After recognizing their considerably strong receptor binding affinities, we evaluated the abilities of BPAP, BPB, and BPZ to activate ERα and ERβ in a luciferase reporter gene assay. These bisphenols were fully active for ERα but completely inactive for ERβ. When we examined their inhibitory activities for 17β-estradiol in ERβ by two different qualitative and quantitative analytical methods, we found that those bisphenols worked as definite antagonists. Consequently, they were established as bifunctional ERα-agonists and ERβ-antagonists. The present structure-activity analyses revealed that the dispersion force works not only on the halogens but also on the hydrocarbon groups, and that it is a major driving force of bifunctional ERα-agonist and ERβ-antagonist activities.

Bisphenol-C is the strongest bifunctional ERα-agonist and ERβ-antagonist due to magnified halogen bonding

We reported that bisphenol AF (BPAF) works as an agonist for estrogen receptor (ER) ERα but as an antagonist for ERβ. Similar results were observed for bisphenol E analogs (BPE-X) such as BPE-F, BPE-Cl, and BPE-Br, each consisting of a series of a tri-halogenated methyl group CX3 in the central alkyl moiety. It was demonstrated that the electrostatic halogen bond based on the dispersion force of halogen atoms is a major driving force in the activities of bifunctional ERα-agonist and ERβ-antagonist. Since the chlorine atoms present in bisphenol C (BPC) exist in a π-π conjugated system due to the presence of an adjacent C = C double bond, we intended to prove that BPC is also a bifunctional ERα-agonist and ERβ-antagonist exhibiting greatly enhanced agonist/antagonist activities. BPC was evaluated for its ability to activate ERα and ERβ in the luciferase reporter gene assay using HeLa cells. With high receptor-binding ability to both ERs, BPC was found to be fully active for ERα but inactive for ERβ. BPC's definite antagonist activity in ERβ was revealed by its inhibitory activity against 17β-estradiol. Thus, BPC is a bifunctional ERα-agonist and ERβ-antagonist. These agonist/antagonist activities were discovered to be extremely high among series of halogen-containing bisphenol compounds. This comparative structure-activity study revealed that the ascending order of ERα-agonist and ERβ-antagonist activities was BPE-F ≪ BPE-Cl ≲ BPAF < BPE-Br ≪ BPC. The highly intensified receptor interaction of BPC is attributable to the presence of an n-π-π-n conjugation system mediated through the >C = CCl2 double bond.

Bisphenol Analogues and Their Chlorinated Derivatives in Breast Milk in China: Occurrence and Exposure Assessment

Concentrations of bisphenol A (BPA) and its analogues (together with their chlorinated derivatives are referred to as BPs) were measured in 181 breastmilk samples collected from 9 provinces in China in 2014. Twelve BP types were found. The BP concentrations ranged from not detected to 5.912 μg/L. BPA was the predominant BP, followed by bisphenol F (BPF) and bisphenol S (BPS). The mean BPA, BPF, and BPS levels were 0.444, 0.107, and 0.027 μg/L, respectively. Other BPs were sporadically detected in breastmilk samples. There were no differences (p > 0.05) in BPA, BPF, BPS, or total BP levels in the urban and rural regions or the northern and southern regions. BPA accounted for approximately 70% of the BPs and BPF accounted for more than 20% of the BPs in breast milk samples. The high contribution of BPF indicated that BPA analogues, not only BPA, should receive attention. The upper-bound daily intakes of BPs for infants 0-6 months old were 0.044-1.291 μg/kg bw/day. Despite the absence of tolerable daily intake data, attention should be paid not only on BPA but also BPF.