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Pichon M, Hollenstein M. Controlled enzymatic synthesis of oligonucleotides. Commun Chem 2024; 7:138. [PMID: 38890393 PMCID: PMC11189433 DOI: 10.1038/s42004-024-01216-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2024] [Accepted: 05/24/2024] [Indexed: 06/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Oligonucleotides are advancing as essential materials for the development of new therapeutics, artificial genes, or in storage of information applications. Hitherto, our capacity to write (i.e., synthesize) oligonucleotides is not as efficient as that to read (i.e., sequencing) DNA/RNA. Alternative, biocatalytic methods for the de novo synthesis of natural or modified oligonucleotides are in dire need to circumvent the limitations of traditional synthetic approaches. This Perspective article summarizes recent progress made in controlled enzymatic synthesis, where temporary blocked nucleotides are incorporated into immobilized primers by polymerases. While robust protocols have been established for DNA, RNA or XNA synthesis is more challenging. Nevertheless, using a suitable combination of protected nucleotides and polymerase has shown promises to produce RNA oligonucleotides even though the production of long DNA/RNA/XNA sequences (>1000 nt) remains challenging. We surmise that merging ligase- and polymerase-based synthesis would help to circumvent the current shortcomings of controlled enzymatic synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maëva Pichon
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, CNRS UMR3523, Department of Structural Biology and Chemistry, Laboratory for Bioorganic Chemistry of Nucleic Acids, 28, Rue du Docteur Roux, 75724, Paris Cedex 15, France
| | - Marcel Hollenstein
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, CNRS UMR3523, Department of Structural Biology and Chemistry, Laboratory for Bioorganic Chemistry of Nucleic Acids, 28, Rue du Docteur Roux, 75724, Paris Cedex 15, France.
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2
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Delahaye J, Stölting M, Geyer C, Vogl T, Eisenblätter M, Helfen A, Höltke C. Development, synthesis and evaluation of novel fluorescent Endothelin-B receptor probes. Eur J Med Chem 2023; 258:115568. [PMID: 37379676 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2023.115568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Revised: 05/16/2023] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/30/2023]
Abstract
The endothelin (ET) signaling system is comprised of three endothelin peptides (ET-1, -2 and -3) and two corresponding endothelin-A and -B receptors (ETAR and ETBR), which belong to the G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) superfamily. The endothelin axis, as this system is also referred to, contributes to the maintenance of vascular tone, functions as regulator of inflammation and proliferation and helps in balancing water homeostasis. In pathological settings, the ET axis is known to contribute to endothelial activation in cardiovascular diseases, to cell proliferation, chemoresistance and metastasis in cancer and to inflammation and fibrosis in renal disease. Antagonists of ETAR and ETBR, either subtype-specific compounds or substances with high affinity to both receptors, have been developed for more than 30 years. In the preclinical context, in vivo imaging of endothelin receptor expression has been utilized to assess ET-axis contribution to e.g. cancer or myocardial infarction. In this work, we present the development and synthesis of two novel ETBR-specific fluorescent probes, based on the available antagonists BQ788 and IRL2500 and their preliminary evaluation in a breast cancer context.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Miriam Stölting
- Clinic for Radiology, University Hospital Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Christiane Geyer
- Clinic for Radiology, University Hospital Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Thomas Vogl
- Institute of Immunology, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Michel Eisenblätter
- Clinic for Radiology, University Hospital Münster, Münster, Germany; Department of Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, Medical Faculty OWL, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Anne Helfen
- Clinic for Radiology, University Hospital Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Carsten Höltke
- Clinic for Radiology, University Hospital Münster, Münster, Germany.
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3
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Mathews AS, Yang H, Montemagno C. Photo-cleavable nucleotides for primer free enzyme mediated DNA synthesis. Org Biomol Chem 2016; 14:8278-88. [PMID: 27527494 DOI: 10.1039/c6ob01371f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The synthesis, characterization and potential application of eight 3'-O modified 2'-deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates (dNTPs) are discussed. These nucleotide analogues are modified by capping the 3'-OH with a photolabile protecting group which can temporarily cease DNA strand growth and can smoothly reinitiate the growth by the photodecomposition of the protecting group and setting the 3'-OH of dNTPs free to propagate. The synthesis of 3'-O-(2-nitrobenzyl)-2'-deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates (NB-dNTPs) and 3'-O-(4,5-dimethoxy-2-nitrobenzyl)-2'-deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates (DMNB-dNTPs) is discussed in detail with structural confirmation using NMR. The UV-cleaving studies are monitored and quantified using LCMS and (1)H NMR spectral traces. The synthesised nucleotides are employed for terminating and reinitiating template-less DNA synthesis, using primer independent Terminal Deoxynucleotidyl Transferase (TdT) enzyme. The use of this photolabile nucleotide in one step stop-start DNA synthesis is a novel strategy towards the precise assembly of dNTPs with the potential to reinforce present technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anu Stella Mathews
- Ingenuity Lab, 11421 Saskatchewan Drive, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 3M9, Canada.
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Guo Q, Wang Y, Lin S, Zhu C, Chen M, Jiang Z, Xu C, Zhang D, Wei H, Shi J. 4-Hydroxybenzyl-substituted amino acid derivatives from Gastrodia elata. Acta Pharm Sin B 2015; 5:350-7. [PMID: 26579466 PMCID: PMC4629276 DOI: 10.1016/j.apsb.2015.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2015] [Revised: 02/26/2015] [Accepted: 02/26/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Seven new 4-hydroxybenzyl-substituted amino acid derivatives (1−7), together with 11 known compounds, were isolated from an aqueous extract of the rhizomes of Gastrodia elata Blume. Their structures were determined by spectroscopic and chemical methods. Compounds 1−3 are pyroglutamate derivatives containing 4-hydroxybenzyl units at the N atom and 4−7 are the first examples of natural products with the 4-hydroxybenzyl unit linked via a thioether bond to 2-hydroxy-3-mercaptopropanoic acid (4−6) and 2-hydroxy-4-mercaptobutanoic acid (7), which would be biogenetically derived from cysteine and homocysteine, respectively. The structures of 1 and 2 were verified by synthesis, while the absolute configurations of 4, 5 and 7 were assigned using Mosher’s method based on the MPA determination rule of ΔδRS values. The known compound 4-(hydroxymethyl)-5-nitrobenzene-1,2-diol (8) exhibited activity against Fe2+-cysteine induced rat liver microsomal lipid peroxidation with IC50 values of 9.99×10−6 mol/L.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Jiangong Shi
- Corresponding author. Tel.: +86 10 83154789; fax: +86 10 63037757.
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5
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Affiliation(s)
- Vijayakumar Ramalingam
- Department of Chemistry, Trinity University, 1 Trinity Place, San Antonio, Texas 78212, United States
| | - Adam R. Urbach
- Department of Chemistry, Trinity University, 1 Trinity Place, San Antonio, Texas 78212, United States
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6
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Tomasini
- Dipartimento di Chimica “G. Ciamician” Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna via Selmi 2, 40126 Bologna, Italy, Fax: +39‐051‐2099456
| | - Gaetano Angelici
- Department of Chemistry, University of Basel, St. Johanns‐Ring 19, 4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Nicola Castellucci
- Dipartimento di Chimica “G. Ciamician” Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna via Selmi 2, 40126 Bologna, Italy, Fax: +39‐051‐2099456
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7
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Deng L, Norberg O, Uppalapati S, Yan M, Ramström O. Stereoselective synthesis of light-activatable perfluorophenylazide-conjugated carbohydrates for glycoarray fabrication and evaluation of structural effects on protein binding by SPR imaging. Org Biomol Chem 2011; 9:3188-98. [PMID: 21423935 PMCID: PMC4030401 DOI: 10.1039/c1ob05040k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A series of light-activatable perfluorophenylazide (PFPA)-conjugated carbohydrate structures have been synthesized and applied to glycoarray fabrication. The glycoconjugates were structurally varied with respect to anomeric attachment, S-, and O-linked carbohydrates, respectively, as well as linker structure and length. Efficient stereoselective synthetic routes were developed, leading to the formation of the PFPA-conjugated structures in good yields over few steps. The use of glycosyl thiols as donors proved especially efficient and provided the final compounds in up to 70% total yield with high anomeric purities. PFPA-based photochemistry was subsequently used to generate carbohydrate arrays on a polymeric surface, and surface plasmon resonance imaging (SPRi) was applied for evaluation of carbohydrate-protein interactions using the plant lectin Concanavalin A (Con A) as a probe. The results indicate better performance and equal efficiency of S- and O-linked structures with intermediate linker length.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lingquan Deng
- Department of Chemistry, KTH - Royal Institute of Technology, Teknikringen 30, S-10044, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Oscar Norberg
- Department of Chemistry, KTH - Royal Institute of Technology, Teknikringen 30, S-10044, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Suji Uppalapati
- Department of Chemistry, Portland State University, P.O. Box 751, Portland, Oregon, 97207-0751, USA
| | - Mingdi Yan
- Department of Chemistry, KTH - Royal Institute of Technology, Teknikringen 30, S-10044, Stockholm, Sweden
- Department of Chemistry, Portland State University, P.O. Box 751, Portland, Oregon, 97207-0751, USA
| | - Olof Ramström
- Department of Chemistry, KTH - Royal Institute of Technology, Teknikringen 30, S-10044, Stockholm, Sweden
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Serwa R, Wilkening I, Del Signore G, Mühlberg M, Claußnitzer I, Weise C, Gerrits M, Hackenberger C. Chemoselektive Staudinger-Phosphit-Reaktion von Aziden für die Phosphorylierung von Proteinen. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2009. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.200902118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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9
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Serwa R, Wilkening I, Del Signore G, Mühlberg M, Claußnitzer I, Weise C, Gerrits M, Hackenberger C. Chemoselective Staudinger-Phosphite Reaction of Azides for the Phosphorylation of Proteins. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2009; 48:8234-9. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.200902118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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10
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Neres J, Wilson DJ, Celia L, Beck BJ, Aldrich CC. Aryl acid adenylating enzymes involved in siderophore biosynthesis: fluorescence polarization assay, ligand specificity, and discovery of non-nucleoside inhibitors via high-throughput screening. Biochemistry 2008; 47:11735-49. [PMID: 18928302 DOI: 10.1021/bi801625b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The design and synthesis of a fluorescent probe Fl-Sal-AMS 6 based on the tight-binding inhibitor 5'- O-[ N-(salicyl)sulfamoyl]adenosine (Sal-AMS) is described for the aryl acid adenylating enzymes (AAAEs) known as MbtA, YbtE, EntE, VibE, DhbE, and BasE involved in siderophore biosynthesis from Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Yersinia pestis, Escherichia coli, Vibrio cholerae, Bacillus subtilis, and Acinetobacter baumannii, respectively. The probe was successfully used to develop a fluorescence polarization assay for these six AAAEs, and equilibrium dissociation constants were determined in direct binding experiments. Fl-Sal-AMS was effective for AAAEs that utilize salicylic acid or 2,3-dihydroxybenzoic acid as native substrates, with dissociation constants ranging from 9-369 nM, but was ineffective for AsbC, the AAAE from Bacillus anthracis, which activates 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid. Competitive binding experiments using a series of ligands including substrates, reaction products, and inhibitors provided the first comparative structure-activity relationships for AAAEs. The fluorescence polarization assay was then miniaturized to a 384-well plate format, and high-throughput screening was performed at the National Screening Laboratory for the Regional Centers of Excellence in Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases (NSRB) against BasE, an AAAE from Acinetobacter baumannii involved in production of the siderophore acinetobactin. Several small molecule inhibitors with new chemotypes were identified, and compound 23 containing a pyrazolo[5,4- a]pyridine scaffold emerged as the most promising ligand with a K D of 78 nM, which was independently confirmed by isothermal calorimetry, and inhibition was also verified in an ATP-[ (32)P]-pyrophosphate exchange steady-state kinetic assay.
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Affiliation(s)
- João Neres
- Center for Drug Design, Academic Health Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, USA
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11
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Angelici G, Tresanchez Carrera R, Luppi G, Tomasini C. The Design and Synthesis of Dansyl-Containing Cyclic Pseudopeptides. European J Org Chem 2008. [DOI: 10.1002/ejoc.200800248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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12
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Turcatti G, Romieu A, Fedurco M, Tairi AP. A new class of cleavable fluorescent nucleotides: synthesis and optimization as reversible terminators for DNA sequencing by synthesis. Nucleic Acids Res 2008; 36:e25. [PMID: 18263613 PMCID: PMC2275100 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkn021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Fluorescent 2′-deoxynucleotides containing a protecting group at the 3′-O-position are reversible terminators enabling array-based DNA sequencing by synthesis (SBS) approaches. Herein, we describe the synthesis of a new family of 3′-OH unprotected cleavable fluorescent 2′-deoxynucleotides and their evaluation as reversible terminators for high-throughput DNA SBS strategies. In this first version, all four modified nucleotides bearing a cleavable disulfide Alexa Fluor® 594 dye were assayed for their ability to act as a reversible stop for the incorporation of the next labeled base. Their use in SBS leaded to a signal–no signal output after successive addition of each labeled nucleotide during the sequencing process (binary read-out). Solid-phase immobilized synthetic DNA target sequences were used to optimize the method that has been applied to DNA polymerized colonies or clusters obtained by in situ solid-phase amplification of fragments of genomic DNA templates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerardo Turcatti
- Manteia Predictive Medicine S.A., Zone Industrielle, Coinsins, CH-1267, Switzerland.
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3'-O-modified nucleotides as reversible terminators for pyrosequencing. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2007; 104:16462-7. [PMID: 17923668 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0707495104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Pyrosequencing is a method used to sequence DNA by detecting the pyrophosphate (PPi) group that is generated when a nucleotide is incorporated into the growing DNA strand in polymerase reaction. However, this method has an inherent difficulty in accurately deciphering the homopolymeric regions of the DNA templates. We report here the development of a method to solve this problem by using nucleotide reversible terminators. These nucleotide analogues are modified with a reversible chemical moiety capping the 3'-OH group to temporarily terminate the polymerase reaction. In this way, only one nucleotide is incorporated into the growing DNA strand even in homopolymeric regions. After detection of the PPi for sequence determination, the 3'-OH of the primer extension products is regenerated through different deprotection methods. Using an allyl or a 2-nitrobenzyl group as the reversible moiety to cap the 3'-OH of the four nucleotides, we have synthesized two sets of 3'-O-modified nucleotides, 3'-O-allyl-dNTPs and 3'-O-(2-nitrobenzyl)-dNTPs as reversible terminators for pyrosequencing. The capping moiety on the 3'-OH of the DNA extension product is efficiently removed after PPi detection by either a chemical method or photolysis. To sequence DNA, templates containing homopolymeric regions are immobilized on Sepharose beads, and then extension-signal detection-deprotection cycles are conducted by using the nucleotide reversible terminators on the DNA beads to unambiguously decipher the sequence of DNA templates. Our results establish that this reversible-terminator-pyrosequencing approach can be potentially developed into a powerful methodology to accurately determine DNA sequences.
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14
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Silverman LN, Pitzer ME, Ankomah PO, Boxer SG, Fenlon EE. Vibrational stark effect probes for nucleic acids. J Phys Chem B 2007; 111:11611-3. [PMID: 17877390 PMCID: PMC2546494 DOI: 10.1021/jp0750912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The vibrational Stark effect (VSE) has proven to be an effective method for the study of electric fields in proteins via the use of infrared probes. To explore the use of VSE in nucleic acids, we investigated the Stark spectroscopy of nine structurally diverse nucleosides. These nucleosides contained nitrile or azide probes in positions that correspond to both the major and minor grooves of DNA. The nitrile probes showed better characteristics and exhibited absorption frequencies over a broad range; that is, from 2253 cm-1 for 2'-O-cyanoethyl ribonucleosides 8 and 9 to 2102 cm(-1) for a 13C-labeled 5-thiocyanatomethyl-2'-deoxyuridine 3c. The largest Stark tuning rate observed was |Deltamu| = 1.1 cm(-1)/(MV/cm) for both 5-cyano-2'-deoxyuridine 1 and N2-nitrile-2'-deoxyguanosine 7. The latter is a particularly attractive probe because of its high extinction coefficient (epsilon = 412 M-1cm-1) and ease of incorporation into oligomers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa N. Silverman
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305-5080
| | - Michael E. Pitzer
- Department of Chemistry, Franklin & Marshall College, PO Box 3003, Lancaster, PA 17601
| | - Peter O. Ankomah
- Department of Chemistry, Franklin & Marshall College, PO Box 3003, Lancaster, PA 17601
| | - Steven G. Boxer
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305-5080
- To whom correspondence should be addressed. Stark Spectroscopy: E-mail: . Telephone: 650-723-4482. Fax: 650-723-4817. Synthesis: E-mail: . Telephone: 717-291-4201. Fax: 717-291-4343
| | - Edward E. Fenlon
- Department of Chemistry, Franklin & Marshall College, PO Box 3003, Lancaster, PA 17601
- To whom correspondence should be addressed. Stark Spectroscopy: E-mail: . Telephone: 650-723-4482. Fax: 650-723-4817. Synthesis: E-mail: . Telephone: 717-291-4201. Fax: 717-291-4343
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Ju J, Kim DH, Bi L, Meng Q, Bai X, Li Z, Li X, Marma MS, Shi S, Wu J, Edwards JR, Romu A, Turro NJ. Four-color DNA sequencing by synthesis using cleavable fluorescent nucleotide reversible terminators. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006; 103:19635-40. [PMID: 17170132 PMCID: PMC1702316 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0609513103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 149] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
DNA sequencing by synthesis (SBS) on a solid surface during polymerase reaction offers a paradigm to decipher DNA sequences. We report here the construction of such a DNA sequencing system using molecular engineering approaches. In this approach, four nucleotides (A, C, G, T) are modified as reversible terminators by attaching a cleavable fluorophore to the base and capping the 3'-OH group with a small chemically reversible moiety so that they are still recognized by DNA polymerase as substrates. We found that an allyl moiety can be used successfully as a linker to tether a fluorophore to 3'-O-allyl-modified nucleotides, forming chemically cleavable fluorescent nucleotide reversible terminators, 3'-O-allyl-dNTPs-allyl-fluorophore, for application in SBS. The fluorophore and the 3'-O-allyl group on a DNA extension product, which is generated by incorporating 3'-O-allyl-dNTPs-allyl-fluorophore in a polymerase reaction, are removed simultaneously in 30 s by Pd-catalyzed deallylation in aqueous buffer solution. This one-step dual-deallylation reaction thus allows the reinitiation of the polymerase reaction and increases the SBS efficiency. DNA templates consisting of homopolymer regions were accurately sequenced by using this class of fluorescent nucleotide analogues on a DNA chip and a four-color fluorescent scanner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingyue Ju
- *Columbia Genome Center, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY 10032; and
- Departments of Chemical Engineering
- To whom correspondence may be addressed at:
Room 405A, Russ Berrie Medical Science Pavilion, Columbia Genome Center, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY 10032. E-mail:
or
| | - Dae Hyun Kim
- *Columbia Genome Center, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY 10032; and
- Biomedical Engineering, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027
| | - Lanrong Bi
- *Columbia Genome Center, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY 10032; and
- Departments of Chemical Engineering
| | - Qinglin Meng
- *Columbia Genome Center, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY 10032; and
- Departments of Chemical Engineering
- Chemistry, and
| | - Xiaopeng Bai
- *Columbia Genome Center, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY 10032; and
- Departments of Chemical Engineering
- Chemistry, and
| | - Zengmin Li
- *Columbia Genome Center, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY 10032; and
- Departments of Chemical Engineering
| | - Xiaoxu Li
- *Columbia Genome Center, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY 10032; and
- Departments of Chemical Engineering
| | - Mong Sano Marma
- *Columbia Genome Center, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY 10032; and
- Departments of Chemical Engineering
| | - Shundi Shi
- *Columbia Genome Center, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY 10032; and
| | - Jian Wu
- *Columbia Genome Center, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY 10032; and
- Departments of Chemical Engineering
- Chemistry, and
| | - John R. Edwards
- *Columbia Genome Center, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY 10032; and
- Departments of Chemical Engineering
| | - Aireen Romu
- *Columbia Genome Center, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY 10032; and
| | - Nicholas J. Turro
- Departments of Chemical Engineering
- Chemistry, and
- To whom correspondence may be addressed at:
Room 405A, Russ Berrie Medical Science Pavilion, Columbia Genome Center, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY 10032. E-mail:
or
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