Microwave-assisted synthesis of thieno[2,3-c]pyridine derivatives as a new series of allosteric enhancers at the adenosine A(1) receptor

Small molecule allosteric modulation of the adenosine A1 receptor

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) represent the target for approximately a third of FDA-approved small molecule drugs. The adenosine A₁ receptor (A₁R), one of four adenosine GPCR subtypes, has important (patho)physiological roles in humans. A₁R has well-established roles in the regulation of the cardiovascular and nervous systems, where it has been identified as a potential therapeutic target for a number of conditions, including cardiac ischemia-reperfusion injury, cognition, epilepsy, and neuropathic pain. A₁R small molecule drugs, typically orthosteric ligands, have undergone clinical trials. To date, none have progressed into the clinic, predominantly due to dose-limiting unwanted effects. The development of A₁R allosteric modulators that target a topographically distinct binding site represent a promising approach to overcome current limitations. Pharmacological parameters of allosteric ligands, including affinity, efficacy and cooperativity, can be optimized to regulate A₁R activity with high subtype, spatial and temporal selectivity. This review aims to offer insights into the A₁R as a potential therapeutic target and highlight recent advances in the structural understanding of A₁R allosteric modulation.

2-Substituted thienotetrahydropyridine derivatives: Allosteric ectonucleotidase inhibitors

The antithrombotic prodrugs ticlopidine and clopidogrel are thienotetrahydro-pyridine derivatives that are metabolized in the liver to produce thiols that irreversibly block adenosine diphosphate (ADP)-activated P2Y₁₂ receptors on thrombocytes. In their native, nonmetabolized form, both drugs were reported to act as inhibitors of ectonucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase-1 (NTPDase1, CD39). CD39 catalyzes the extracellular hydrolysis of nucleoside tri- and diphosphates, mainly adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP) and ADP, yielding adenosine monophosphate, which is further hydrolyzed by ecto-5'-nucleotidase (CD73) to produce adenosine. While ATP has proinflammatory effects, adenosine is a potent anti-inflammatory, immunosuppressive agent. Inhibitors of CD39 and CD73 have potential as novel checkpoint inhibitors for the immunotherapy of cancer and infection. In the present study, we investigated 2-substituted thienotetrahydropyridine derivatives, structurally related to ticlopidine, as CD39 inhibitors. Due to their substituent on the 2-position, they will not be metabolically transformed into reactive thiols and can, therefore, be expected to be devoid of P2Y₁₂ receptor-antagonistic activity in vivo. Several of the investigated 2-substituted thienotetrahydropyridine derivatives showed concentration-dependent inhibition of CD39. The most potent derivative, 32, showed similar CD39-inhibitory potency to ticlopidine, both acting as allosteric inhibitors. Compound 32 showed an improved selectivity profile: While ticlopidine blocked several NTPDase isoenzymes, 32 was characterized as a novel dual inhibitor of CD39 and CD73.

TRR469, a potent A(1) adenosine receptor allosteric modulator, exhibits anti-nociceptive properties in acute and neuropathic pain models in mice

A(1) adenosine receptors (ARs) have been identified as a potential target for the development of anti-nociceptive compounds. The present study explores the analgesic effects of a novel A(1)AR positive allosteric modulator, TRR469, in different models of acute and chronic pain in mice. To evaluate the allosteric enhancement, in vitro binding experiments were performed. The anti-nociceptive properties were investigated in formalin and writhing tests, and in the streptozotocin-induced diabetic neuropathic pain model. Rotarod and catalepsy tests were used to identify potential side effects, while the functional effect of TRR469 was studied using [(3)H]-d-aspartate release from synaptosomes. TRR469 effectively inhibited nociceptive responses in the formalin and writhing tests, with effects comparable to those of the reference analgesic morphine. Isobolographic analysis of the combination of TRR469 and morphine revealed an additive interaction. TRR469 was anti-allodynic in the neuropathic pain model and did not display locomotor or cataleptic side effects. TRR469 enhanced the binding of the agonist radioligand [(3)H]-CCPA and induced a 33-fold increase of adenosine affinity in spinal cord membranes. In mouse spinal cord synaptosomes, TRR469 enhanced the inhibitory effect of A(1)AR activation on [(3)H]-d-aspartate release, a non-metabolizable analogue of glutamate. In conclusion, this research demonstrates the anti-nociceptive effect of the novel compound TRR469, one of the most potent and effective A(1)AR positive allosteric modulators so far synthesized. The use of TRR469 allows for the possibility of exploiting analgesic properties of endogenous adenosine, with a minor potential to develop the various side effects often associated with the use of direct receptor agonists.

Allosteric modulation of purine and pyrimidine receptors

Among the purine and pyrimidine receptors, the discovery of small molecular allosteric modulators has been most highly advanced for the A(1) and A(3) adenosine receptors (ARs). These AR modulators have allosteric effects that are structurally separated from the orthosteric effects in SAR studies. The benzoylthiophene derivatives tend to act as allosteric agonists as well as selective positive allosteric modulators (PAMs) of the A(1) AR. A 2-amino-3-aroylthiophene derivative T-62 has been under development as a PAM of the A(1) AR for the treatment of chronic pain. Several structurally distinct classes of allosteric modulators of the human A(3) AR have been reported: 3-(2-pyridinyl)isoquinolines, 2,4-disubstituted quinolines, 1H-imidazo-[4,5-c]quinolin-4-amines, endocannabinoid 2-arachidonylglycerol, and the food dye Brilliant Black BN. Site-directed mutagenesis of A(1) and A(3) ARs has identified residues associated with the allosteric effect, distinct from those that affect orthosteric binding. A few small molecular allosteric modulators have been reported for several of the P2X ligand-gated ion channels and the G protein-coupled P2Y receptor nucleotides. Metal ion modulation of the P2X receptors has been extensively explored. The allosteric approach to modulation of purine and pyrimidine receptors looks promising for development of drugs that are event and site specific in action.

Allosteric modulation of adenosine receptors

Allosteric ligands for G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) may alter receptor conformations induced by an orthosteric ligand. These modulators can thus fine-tune classical pharmacological responses. In this review we will describe efforts to synthesize and characterize allosteric modulators for one particular GPCR subfamily, the adenosine receptors. There are four subtypes of these receptors: A(1), A(2A), A(2B) and A(3). Allosteric enhancers for the adenosine A(1) receptor may have anti-arrythmic and anti-lipolytic activity. They may also act as analgesics and neuroprotective agents. A(3) allosteric enhancers are thought to be beneficial in ischemic conditions or as antitumor agents. We will summarize recent developments regarding the medicinal chemistry of such compounds. Most data have been and are published about the adenosine A(1) and A(3) receptor, whereas limited or no information is available for the A(2A) and A(2B) receptor, respectively. Receptor mutation studies are also discussed, as they may shed light on the localization of the allosteric binding sites. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: "Adenosine Receptors".

Allosteric modulation of adenosine receptors

Allosteric modulators for adenosine receptors may have potential therapeutic advantage over orthosteric ligands. Allosteric enhancers at the adenosine A₁ receptor have been linked to antiarrhythmic and antilipolytic activity. They may also have therapeutic potential as analgesics and neuroprotective agents. A₃ allosteric enhancers are postulated to be useful against ischemic conditions or as antitumor agents. In this review, we address recent developments regarding the medicinal chemistry of such compounds. Most efforts have been and are directed toward adenosine A₁ and A₃ receptors, whereas limited or no information is available for A_2A and A_2B receptors. We also discuss some findings, mostly receptor mutation studies, regarding localization of the allosteric binding sites on the receptors.