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Apichartpiyakul P, Shinlapawittayatorn K, Rerkasem K, Chattipakorn SC, Chattipakorn N. Mechanisms and Interventions on Acute Lower Limb Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury: A Review and Insights from Cell to Clinical Investigations. Ann Vasc Surg 2022; 86:452-481. [PMID: 35589030 DOI: 10.1016/j.avsg.2022.04.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2022] [Revised: 04/27/2022] [Accepted: 04/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
AIM This review aims to highlight mechanistic insights on skeletal muscle ischemia/reperfusion injury (IRI), a potentially life-threatening complication after acute lower limb ischemia. Lower limb IRI produces a wide spectrum of manifestations, ranging from local skeletal muscle necrosis to multi-organ failure. There is increasing evidence from both in vitro and in vivo reports to demonstrate several promising interventions that have successfully reduced IRI in skeletal muscle ischemic models. However, clinical studies to confirm their benefits are still lacking. METHOD We conducted a comprehensive search of English literature listed in the PubMed database (All related published articles shown in PubMed until September 2020 have been included in this review), using the following keywords: acute limb ischemia, acute arterial occlusion, compartment syndrome, ischemic reperfusion injury, revascularization and hypoxic reoxygenation. RESULT 58 articles pertinent to acute limb ischemia models were identified. The underlying mechanisms associated with IRI in skeletal muscle are due to excessive mitochondrial production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), cellular apoptosis and activation of inflammatory cascades. Several therapeutic interventions including both pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatments have been investigated and some showed promising results. These interventions include antioxidation, anti-inflammation, anti-hypertension, controlled-reperfusion and ischemic preconditioning. Further clinical studies are needed to warrant their use in a clinical setting for lower limb IRI treatment. CONCLUSION This review comprehensively summarizes the mechanisms underlying IRI in lower limb ischemia. The reports currently available regarding the potential therapeutic interventions against lower limb IRI from in vitro, in vivo and clinical studies are presented and discussed. These findings may provide mechanistic insights for devising the strategies to improve the clinical outcomes in IRI patients in the near future. Further clinical studies are needed to warrant their use in a clinical setting for lower limb IRI treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Poon Apichartpiyakul
- Vascular Surgery Unit, Department of Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50200, Thailand
| | - Krekwit Shinlapawittayatorn
- Cardiac Electrophysiology Unit, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50200, Thailand; Cardiac Electrophysiology Research and Training Center, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50200, Thailand; Center of Excellence in Cardiac Electrophysiology Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50200, Thailand
| | - Kittipan Rerkasem
- Vascular Surgery Unit, Department of Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50200, Thailand
| | - Siriporn C Chattipakorn
- Cardiac Electrophysiology Research and Training Center, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50200, Thailand; Center of Excellence in Cardiac Electrophysiology Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50200, Thailand
| | - Nipon Chattipakorn
- Cardiac Electrophysiology Unit, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50200, Thailand; Cardiac Electrophysiology Research and Training Center, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50200, Thailand; Center of Excellence in Cardiac Electrophysiology Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50200, Thailand.
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Xu Q, Deng H, Li X, Quan ZS. Application of Amino Acids in the Structural Modification of Natural Products: A Review. Front Chem 2021; 9:650569. [PMID: 33996749 PMCID: PMC8118163 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2021.650569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2021] [Accepted: 03/02/2021] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Natural products and their derivatives are important sources for drug discovery; however, they usually have poor solubility and low activity and require structural modification. Amino acids are highly soluble in water and have a wide range of activities. The introduction of amino acids into natural products is expected to improve the performance of these products and minimize their adverse effects. Therefore, this review summarizes the application of amino acids in the structural modification of natural products and provides a theoretical basis for the structural modification of natural products in the future. The articles were divided into six types based on the backbone structures of the natural products, and the related applications of amino acids in the structural modification of natural products were discussed in detail.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian Xu
- Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines of the Changbai Mountain, Affiliated Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Jilin, China
| | - Hao Deng
- Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines of the Changbai Mountain, Affiliated Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Jilin, China
| | - Xiaoting Li
- Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines of the Changbai Mountain, Affiliated Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Jilin, China
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Zhe-Shan Quan
- Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines of the Changbai Mountain, Affiliated Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Jilin, China
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Yokoyama H, Tsujii M, Iino T, Nakamura T, Sudo A. Inhibitory effect of edaravone on systemic inflammation and local damage in skeletal muscles following long-term ischemia to murine hind limb. J Orthop Surg (Hong Kong) 2020; 27:2309499019874470. [PMID: 31549573 DOI: 10.1177/2309499019874470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE The purpose of this study was to evaluate local and systemic pathology in a murine model of ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury induced by long-term application of a tourniquet on the hind limbs and to assess the protective effects of edaravone, a potent systemic scavenger of free radicals, using this model. METHODS Sixty C57BL6 mice were divided in two groups, with one group receiving a 3 mg/kg intraperitoneal injection of edaravone and the other group receiving an identical amount of saline 30 min before ischemia under deep anesthesia. The left thigh of each animal was constricted for 4 h with a 4.5-oz. orthodontic rubber band to induce ischemia; 4 h was the critical duration for skeletal muscles. After ischemia, specimens of skeletal muscles, both kidneys, and plasma were collected at 0, 2, 12, 24, 48, and 72 h. Injury to the skeletal muscles and vacuolar degeneration of the kidneys were histologically assessed. Additionally, apoptosis of skeletal muscle cells was assessed by analysis of caspase 3/7 activity and TUNEL staining. Plasma tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α levels were measured using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kit. RESULTS Skeletal muscles exhibited prominent injury of myofibers at 12 h after I/R injury, with clear upregulation of plasma TNF-α expression and histologic evidence of tubular dysfunction of the kidneys. Plasma TNF-α levels declined and histologic renal damage was ameliorated in edaravone-treated mice, but treatment did not protect skeletal muscle following ischemia for 4 h. Nonetheless, compared with group S, expression of the apoptosis marker caspase 3/7 was significantly inhibited in the skeletal hind limb muscles of Ed-group mice affected by reperfusion injury following ischemia for 4 h. CONCLUSION The present study demonstrated that edaravone is a potentially useful drug for systemic or local treatment of reperfusion injury resulting from long-term ischemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hirokazu Yokoyama
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Mie University, Tsu, Japan
| | - Masaya Tsujii
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Mie University, Tsu, Japan
| | - Takahiro Iino
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Mie University, Tsu, Japan
| | - Tomoki Nakamura
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Mie University, Tsu, Japan
| | - Akihiro Sudo
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Mie University, Tsu, Japan
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Panda SS, Girgis AS, Thomas SJ, Capito JE, George RF, Salman A, El-Manawaty MA, Samir A. Synthesis, pharmacological profile and 2D-QSAR studies of curcumin-amino acid conjugates as potential drug candidates. Eur J Med Chem 2020; 196:112293. [PMID: 32311607 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2020.112293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2020] [Revised: 03/28/2020] [Accepted: 03/28/2020] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
A series of curcumin bis-conjugates 3a-q, 5a-k and 6a-k were synthesized in good yields utilizing an optimized reaction condition. We explored the effect of different amino acids and protecting groups on biological activities of curcumin. The conjugates were screened for anti-inflammatory, analgesic and antimicrobial properties. Some of the conjugates showed promising biological observations with a potency comparable with the standard references. The variations in biological properties concerning different amino acids and protecting groups are interesting observations. Effects of the synthesized conjugates on splenocytes and the production of nitric oxide by lipopolysaccharide-stimulated peritoneal macrophages are correlated with the observed anti-inflammatory properties. We have also established the safety profile of the most active conjugates. Robust 2D-QSAR studies supported and validated biological data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siva S Panda
- Department of Chemistry and Physics, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, 30912, USA.
| | - Adel S Girgis
- Department of Pesticide Chemistry, National Research Centre, Dokki, Giza, 12622, Egypt
| | - Sean J Thomas
- Department of Chemistry and Physics, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, 30912, USA
| | - Jason E Capito
- Department of Chemistry and Physics, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, 30912, USA
| | - Riham F George
- Pharmaceutical Chemistry Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Cairo, 11562, Egypt
| | - Asmaa Salman
- Medical and Pharmaceutical Chemistry Department, National Research Centre, Dokki, Giza, 12622, Egypt
| | - May A El-Manawaty
- Drug Bioassay-Cell Culture Laboratory, Pharmacognosy Department, National Research Centre, Dokki, Giza, 12622, Egypt
| | - Ahmed Samir
- Microbiology Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
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Li RW, Deng Y, Pham HN, Weiss S, Chen M, Smith PN. Riluzole protects against skeletal muscle ischaemia-reperfusion injury in a porcine model. Injury 2020; 51:178-184. [PMID: 31882236 DOI: 10.1016/j.injury.2019.12.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2019] [Revised: 12/09/2019] [Accepted: 12/16/2019] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Skeletal muscle ischaemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) can be a life threatening condition. It is relevant to various aspects of the management of trauma and surgical patients. Currently there lacks a pharmacological agent that can be used to dampen the effects of IRI. Riluzole has been shown to reduce the effects of IRI on various organ systems, but there have yet to be any studies on the effects in IRI of skeletal muscle. Our aim was to investigate the effects of Riluzole on IRI in the skeletal muscle of pigs. METHODS Twenty-two pigs were randomly divided into groups. Riluzole was administered before ligation of the femoral artery to produce ischaemia in the tibialis anterior muscle in the experimental group but not the control group. The microscopic appearance of muscles were recorded, a TUNEL assay was used to identify DNA damage and glutathione levels were measured. RESULTS In the Riluzole group, muscle fibres appeared less wavy and less oedematous compared to the control group. The Riluzole group also had less evidence of DNA fragmentation on the TUNEL assay. The glutathione levels in the Riluzole group were also significantly greater than the control group. DISCUSSION Our findings suggest that Riluzole can potentially reduce the effects of IRI on skeletal muscle. This is potentially due to the ability of Riluzole to block sodium channels, decreasing action potentials and therefore glutamate release. It also acts to decrease intracellular calcium levels, which prevents apoptosis. Riluzole is a promising drug for the prevention of IRI in skeletal muscle, but further research is required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel W Li
- The Medical School, the Australian National UNiversity, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia; John Curtin School of Medical Research, The Australian National University, Garran Rd, Canberra, ACT 2601 Australia.
| | - Yi Deng
- The Medical School, the Australian National UNiversity, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia; Canberra Hospital, Yamba Dr, Canberra, ACT 2605 Australia
| | - Hai Nam Pham
- The Medical School, the Australian National UNiversity, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
| | - Steven Weiss
- John Curtin School of Medical Research, The Australian National University, Garran Rd, Canberra, ACT 2601 Australia
| | - Mingming Chen
- The Medical School, the Australian National UNiversity, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
| | - Paul N Smith
- Canberra Hospital, Yamba Dr, Canberra, ACT 2605 Australia
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Bazylevich A, Tuchinsky H, Zigman-Hoffman E, Weissman R, Shpilberg O, Hershkovitz-Rokah O, Patsenker L, Gellerman G. Synthesis and Biological Studies of New Multifunctional Curcumin Platforms for Anticancer Drug Delivery. Med Chem 2018; 15:537-549. [PMID: 30501600 DOI: 10.2174/1573406415666181203112220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2018] [Revised: 11/17/2018] [Accepted: 11/18/2018] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Scientists have extensively investigated curcumin, yielding many publications on treatments of cancer. Numerous derivatives of curcumin were synthesized, evaluated for their anti-oxidant and free-radical scavenging, SAR, ADME properties and tested in anticancer applications. OBJECTIVE We decided to exploit curcumin as a bioactive core platform for carrying anticancer drugs, which likely possesses a carboxyl moiety for potential linkage to the carrier for drug delivery. METHODS The goal of this work is to develop biolabile multifunctional curcumin platforms towards anticancer drug delivery, including determination of drug release profiling in hydrolytic media, in vitro cytotoxicity, antioxidant properties and blockage of relevant cell survival pathways. RESULTS We report on a facile synthesis of the bioactive multifunctional curcumin-based platforms linked to a variety of anticancer drugs like amonafide and chlorambucil, and release of the drugs in a hydrolytic environment. The leading curcumin-based platform has presented antioxidant activity similar to curcumin, but with much more potent cytotoxicity in vitro in agreement with the augmented blockage of the NF-kB cell survival pathway. CONCLUSION The approach presented here may prove beneficial for bioactive curcumin-based delivery applications where multiple drug delivery is required in a consecutive and controlled mode.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrii Bazylevich
- Department of Chemical Sciences, Ariel University, Ariel, 40700, Israel
| | - Helena Tuchinsky
- Department of Molecular Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Ariel University, Ariel, Israel
| | | | - Ran Weissman
- Department of Molecular Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Ariel University, Ariel, Israel.,Institute of Hematology, Assuta Medical Centers, Tel Aviv, Israel.,Translational Research Lab, Assuta Medical Centers, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Ofer Shpilberg
- Institute of Hematology, Assuta Medical Centers, Tel Aviv, Israel.,Translational Research Lab, Assuta Medical Centers, Tel Aviv, Israel.,Pre-Medicine Department, School of Health Sciences, Ariel University, Ariel, Israel
| | - Oshrat Hershkovitz-Rokah
- Department of Molecular Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Ariel University, Ariel, Israel.,Institute of Hematology, Assuta Medical Centers, Tel Aviv, Israel.,Translational Research Lab, Assuta Medical Centers, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Leonid Patsenker
- Department of Chemical Sciences, Ariel University, Ariel, 40700, Israel
| | - Gary Gellerman
- Department of Chemical Sciences, Ariel University, Ariel, 40700, Israel
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Bi W, Bi Y, Li P, Hou S, Yan X, Hensley C, Bammert CE, Zhang Y, Gibson KM, Ju J, Bi L. Indole Alkaloid Derivative B, a Novel Bifunctional Agent That Mitigates 5-Fluorouracil-Induced Cardiotoxicity. ACS OMEGA 2018; 3:15850-15864. [PMID: 30533582 PMCID: PMC6275955 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.8b02139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2018] [Accepted: 10/23/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Clinically approved therapeutics that mitigate chemotherapy-induced cardiotoxicity, a serious adverse effect of chemotherapy, are lacking. The aim of this study was to determine the putative protective capacity of a novel indole alkaloid derivative B (IADB) against 5-fluorouracil (5-FU)-induced cardiotoxicity. To assess the free-radical scavenging activities of IADB, the acetylcholine-induced relaxation assay in rat thoracic aorta was used. Further, IADB was tested in normal and cancer cell lines with assays gauging autophagy induction. We further examined whether IADB could attenuate cardiotoxicity in 5-FU-treated male ICR mice. We found that IADB could serve as a novel bifunctional agent (displaying both antioxidant and autophagy-modulating activities). Further, we demonstrated that IADB induced production of cytosolic autophagy-associated structures in both cancer and normal cell lines. We observed that IADB cytotoxicity was much lower in normal versus cancer cell lines, suggesting an enhanced potency toward cancer cells. The cardiotoxicity induced by 5-FU was significantly relieved in animals pretreated with IADB. Taken together, IADB treatment, in combination with chemotherapy, may lead to reduced cardiotoxicity, as well as the reduction of anticancer drug dosages that may further improve chemotherapeutic efficacy with decreased off-target effects. Our data suggest that the use of IADB may be therapeutically beneficial in minimizing cardiotoxicity associated with high-dose chemotherapy. On the basis of the redox status difference between normal and tumor cells, IADB selectively induces autophagic cell death, mediated by reactive oxygen species overproduction, in cancer cells. This novel mechanism could reveal novel therapeutic targets in chemotherapy-induced cardiotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Bi
- Second
Hospital of HeBei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050000, P. R. China
| | - Yue Bi
- Second
Hospital of HeBei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050000, P. R. China
| | - Pengfei Li
- Second
Hospital of HeBei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050000, P. R. China
| | - Shanshan Hou
- Department
of Chemistry and Biological Sciences, Michigan
Technological University, Houghton, Michigan 49931, United States
| | - Xin Yan
- Department
of Chemistry and Biological Sciences, Michigan
Technological University, Houghton, Michigan 49931, United States
| | - Connor Hensley
- Department
of Chemistry and Biological Sciences, Michigan
Technological University, Houghton, Michigan 49931, United States
| | - Catherine E. Bammert
- Department
of Chemistry and Biological Sciences, Michigan
Technological University, Houghton, Michigan 49931, United States
| | - Yanrong Zhang
- Second
Hospital of HeBei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050000, P. R. China
| | - K. Michael Gibson
- Department
of Pharmacotherapy, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Washington State University, Spokane, Washington 99202, United States
| | - Jingfang Ju
- Translational
Research Laboratory, Department of Pathology, Stony Brook University, Stony
Brook, New York 11794, United States
| | - Lanrong Bi
- Department
of Chemistry and Biological Sciences, Michigan
Technological University, Houghton, Michigan 49931, United States
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An overview of structure-activity relationship studies of curcumin analogs as antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agents. Future Med Chem 2017; 9:605-626. [PMID: 28394628 DOI: 10.4155/fmc-2016-0223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Curcumin, extracted mainly from Curcuma longa rhizomes, has been reported to possess potent anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant activities. Although safe at higher doses and exhibiting multiple biological activities, curcumin still has the problem of poor bioavailability which has been an attractive area of research over the last few years. A number of efforts have been made by modifying structural features of curcumin. This review highlights the structurally modified and more stable newly synthesized curcumin analogs that have been screened against antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. Also the structure-activity relationship to gain insight into future guidelines for scheming new compounds has been discussed, and further these analogs being more stable may serve as promising agents for use in different pathological conditions.
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Bi W, Bi Y, Gao X, Li P, Hou S, Zhang Y, Bammert C, Jockusch S, Legalley TD, Michael Gibson K, Bi L. Indole-TEMPO conjugates alleviate ischemia-reperfusion injury via attenuation of oxidative stress and preservation of mitochondrial function. Bioorg Med Chem 2017; 25:2545-2568. [PMID: 28359673 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2017.03.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2016] [Revised: 03/14/2017] [Accepted: 03/16/2017] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Mitochondrial oxidative damage contributes to a wide range of pathologies including ischemia/reperfusion injury. Accordingly, protecting mitochondria from oxidative damage should possess therapeutic relevance. In the present study, we have designed and synthesized a series of novel indole-TEMPO conjugates that manifested good anti-inflammatory properties in a murine model of xylene-induced ear edema. We have demonstrated that these compounds can protect cells from simulated ischemia/reperfusion (s-I/R)-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) overproduction and mitochondrial dysfunction. Furthermore, we have demonstrated that indole-TEMPO conjugates can attenuate organ damage induced in rodents via intestinal I/R injury. We therefore propose that the pharmacological profile and mechanism of action of these indole-TEMPO conjugates involve convergent roles, including the ability to decrease free radical production via lipid peroxidation which couples to an associated decrease in ROS-mediated activation of the inflammatory process. We further hypothesize that the protective effects of indole-TEMPO conjugates partially reside in maintaining optimal mitochondrial function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Bi
- Second Hospital of HeBei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050000, PR China.
| | - Yue Bi
- Second Hospital of HeBei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050000, PR China
| | - Xiang Gao
- Department of Chemistry and Biological Sciences, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI 49931, USA
| | - Pengfei Li
- Second Hospital of HeBei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050000, PR China
| | - Shanshan Hou
- Department of Chemistry and Biological Sciences, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI 49931, USA
| | - Yanrong Zhang
- Second Hospital of HeBei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050000, PR China
| | - Cathy Bammert
- Department of Chemistry and Biological Sciences, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI 49931, USA
| | - Steffen Jockusch
- Department of Chemistry, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA
| | - Thomas D Legalley
- Marquette General Heart and Vascular Institute, Marquette General Hospital, Marquette, MI 49855, USA
| | - K Michael Gibson
- Department of Pharmacotherapy, College of Pharmacy, Washington State University, Spokane WA 99202, USA.
| | - Lanrong Bi
- Department of Chemistry and Biological Sciences, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI 49931, USA.
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