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Liu J, Xu S, Huang C, Shen J, Yu S, Yu Y, Sun Q, Dai Q. Synthesis and activity evaluation of selenazole-coupled CPI-1 irreversible bifunctional inhibitors for botulinum toxin A light chain. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2022; 73:128913. [PMID: 35914651 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2022.128913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2021] [Revised: 07/21/2022] [Accepted: 07/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
A series of novel conjugates of benzoselenazole or selenazole and CPI-1 were designed, synthesized, and evaluated for inhibitory activities against the botulinum neurotoxin A (BoNT/A) light chain (LC) and BoNT/A in vivo. The results show that these compounds exhibit potent inhibitory activities to the LC with IC50 of 0.5-4.1 µM. The reaction kinetics and the mass spectra of the reaction products of LC with benzoselenazole- or selenazole- coupled CPI-1 demonstrate that the benzoselenazole group of most inhibitors is coupled to the LC of BoNT/A. These data indicate that the CPI-1 conjugates can inhibit both the active center of BoNT/A LC as well as Cys165, therefore functioning as irreversible bifunctional inhibitors. The detoxification activities in vivo show that one of the benzoselenazole-CPI-1 compounds prolongs the survival time of mice challenged by 2 × LD50 of BoNT/A. This work provides a new strategy to design potent antidotes of BoNT/A.
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Shen J, Liu J, Yu S, Yu Y, Huang C, Xiong X, Yue J, Dai Q. Diaminodiacid bridge improves enzymatic and in vivo inhibitory activity of peptide CPI-1 against botulinum toxin serotype A. CHINESE CHEM LETT 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cclet.2021.03.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Joaquim AR, Gionbelli MP, Gosmann G, Fuentefria AM, Lopes MS, Fernandes de Andrade S. Novel Antimicrobial 8-Hydroxyquinoline-Based Agents: Current Development, Structure-Activity Relationships, and Perspectives. J Med Chem 2021; 64:16349-16379. [PMID: 34779640 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.1c01318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
The search for new antimicrobials is imperative due to the emergent resistance of new microorganism strains. In this context, revisiting known classes like 8-hydroxyquinolines could be an interesting strategy to discover new agents. The 8-hydroxyquinoline derivatives nitroxoline and clioquinol are used to treat microbial infections; however, these drugs are underused, being available in few countries or limited to topical use. After years of few advances, in the last two decades, the potent activity of clioquinol and nitroxoline against several targets and the privileged structure of 8-hydroxyquinoline nucleus have prompted an increased interest in the design of novel antimicrobial, anticancer, and anti-Alzheimer agents based on this class. Herein, we discuss the current development and antimicrobial structure-activity relationships of this class in the perspective of using the 8-hydroxyquinoline nucleus for the search for novel antimicrobial agents. Furthermore, the most investigated molecular targets concerning 8-hydroxyquinoline derivatives are explored in the final section.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angélica Rocha Joaquim
- Pharmaceutical Synthesis Group (PHARSG), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Ipiranga, 2752, Azenha, Porto Alegre, RS 90610-000, Brazil.,Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Ipiranga, 2752, Azenha, Porto Alegre, RS 90610-000, Brazil
| | - Mariana Pies Gionbelli
- Pharmaceutical Synthesis Group (PHARSG), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Ipiranga, 2752, Azenha, Porto Alegre, RS 90610-000, Brazil.,Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Ipiranga, 2752, Azenha, Porto Alegre, RS 90610-000, Brazil
| | - Grace Gosmann
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Ipiranga, 2752, Azenha, Porto Alegre, RS 90610-000, Brazil
| | - Alexandre Meneghello Fuentefria
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Ipiranga, 2752, Azenha, Porto Alegre, RS 90610-000, Brazil.,Programa de Pós-graduação em Microbiologia Agrícola e do Ambiente, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Sarmento Leite, 500, Farroupilha, Porto Alegre, RS 90050-170, Brazil
| | - Marcela Silva Lopes
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Ipiranga, 2752, Azenha, Porto Alegre, RS 90610-000, Brazil
| | - Saulo Fernandes de Andrade
- Pharmaceutical Synthesis Group (PHARSG), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Ipiranga, 2752, Azenha, Porto Alegre, RS 90610-000, Brazil.,Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Ipiranga, 2752, Azenha, Porto Alegre, RS 90610-000, Brazil.,Programa de Pós-graduação em Microbiologia Agrícola e do Ambiente, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Sarmento Leite, 500, Farroupilha, Porto Alegre, RS 90050-170, Brazil
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Dash RC, Wen J, Zaino AM, Morel SR, Chau LQ, Wechsler-Reya RJ, Hadden MK. Structure-based virtual screening identifies an 8-hydroxyquinoline as a small molecule GLI1 inhibitor. Mol Ther Oncolytics 2021; 20:265-276. [PMID: 33614910 PMCID: PMC7873571 DOI: 10.1016/j.omto.2021.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2020] [Accepted: 01/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The glioma-associated family of transcription factors (GLI) have emerged as a promising therapeutic target for a variety of human cancers. In particular, GLI1 plays a central role as a transcriptional regulator for multiple oncogenic signaling pathways, including the hedgehog (Hh) signaling pathway. We undertook a computational screening approach to identify small molecules that directly bind GLI1 for potential development as inhibitors of GLI-mediated transcription. Through these studies, we identified compound 1, which is an 8-hydroxyquinoline, as a high-affinity binder of GLI1. Compound 1 inhibits GLI1-mediated transcriptional activity in several Hh-dependent cellular models, including a primary model of murine medulloblastoma. We also performed a series of computational analyses to define more clearly the mechanism(s) through which 1 inhibits GLI1 function after binding. Our results strongly suggest that binding of 1 to GLI1 does not prevent GLI1/DNA binding nor disrupt the GLI1/DNA complex, but rather, it induces specific conformational changes in the overall complex that prevent proper GLI function. These results highlight the potential of this compound for further development as an anti-cancer agent that targets GLI1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Radha Charan Dash
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Connecticut, 69 N. Eagleville Rd., Unit 3092, Storrs, CT 06269-3092, USA
| | - Jiachen Wen
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Connecticut, 69 N. Eagleville Rd., Unit 3092, Storrs, CT 06269-3092, USA
| | - Angela M. Zaino
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Connecticut, 69 N. Eagleville Rd., Unit 3092, Storrs, CT 06269-3092, USA
| | - Shana R. Morel
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Connecticut, 69 N. Eagleville Rd., Unit 3092, Storrs, CT 06269-3092, USA
| | - Lianne Q. Chau
- Tumor Initiation and Maintenance Program, NCI-Designated Cancer Center, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, 10901 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Robert J. Wechsler-Reya
- Tumor Initiation and Maintenance Program, NCI-Designated Cancer Center, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, 10901 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - M. Kyle Hadden
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Connecticut, 69 N. Eagleville Rd., Unit 3092, Storrs, CT 06269-3092, USA
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Thompson JC, Dao WT, Ku A, Rodriguez-Beltran SL, Amezcua M, Palomino AY, Lien T, Salzameda NT. Synthesis and activity of isoleucine sulfonamide derivatives as novel botulinum neurotoxin serotype A light chain inhibitors. Bioorg Med Chem 2020; 28:115659. [PMID: 32828426 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2020.115659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2020] [Revised: 07/07/2020] [Accepted: 07/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) is the most lethal protein known to man causing the deadly disease botulinum. The neurotoxin, composed of a heavy (HC) and light (LC) chain, work in concert to cause muscle paralysis. A therapeutic strategy to treat individuals infected with the neurotoxin is inhibiting the catalytic activity of the BoNT LC. We report the synthesis, inhibition study and computational docking analysis of novel small molecule BoNT/A LC inhibitors. A structure activity relationship study resulted in the discovery of d-isoleucine functionalized with a hydroxamic acid on the C-terminal and a biphenyl with chlorine at C- 2 connected by a sulfonamide linker at the N-terminus. This compound has a measured IC50 of 0.587 µM for the BoNT/A LC. Computational docking analysis indicates the sulfonamide linker adopts a geometry that is advantageous for binding to the BoNT LC active site. In addition, Arg363 is predicted to be involved in key binding interactions with the scaffold in this study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordan C Thompson
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, California State University, 800 N. State College, Fullerton, CA, 92834, USA
| | - Wendy T Dao
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, California State University, 800 N. State College, Fullerton, CA, 92834, USA
| | - Alex Ku
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, California State University, 800 N. State College, Fullerton, CA, 92834, USA
| | - Sandra L Rodriguez-Beltran
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, California State University, 800 N. State College, Fullerton, CA, 92834, USA
| | - Martin Amezcua
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, California State University, 800 N. State College, Fullerton, CA, 92834, USA
| | - Alejandra Y Palomino
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, California State University, 800 N. State College, Fullerton, CA, 92834, USA
| | - Thanh Lien
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, California State University, 800 N. State College, Fullerton, CA, 92834, USA
| | - Nicholas T Salzameda
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, California State University, 800 N. State College, Fullerton, CA, 92834, USA.
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Chauhan R, Chauhan V, Sonkar P, Vimal M, Dhaked RK. Targeted 8-hydroxyquinoline fragment based small molecule drug discovery against neglected botulinum neurotoxin type F. Bioorg Chem 2019; 92:103297. [PMID: 31557621 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2019.103297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2019] [Revised: 09/13/2019] [Accepted: 09/16/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Botulinum neurotoxins are highly potent biological warfare agents. The unavailability of countermeasures against these neurotoxins has been a matter of extensive research. However, no clinical therapeutics has come to existence till date. The 8-hydroxyquinoline (8-HQ) scaffold is established privileged compound and its potential as drug candidate against BoNTs is recently being explored. METHODS In present work, three course studies were performed involving in silico, in vitro and in vivo cascade to screen 8-HQ small molecule inhibitors against BoNT/F intoxication. ~800 molecules obtained from open repositories were screened in silico and commercially obtained twenty-four 8-HQ derived small molecule inhibitors were evaluated against rBoNT/F light chain through fluorescence thermal shift (FTS) assay. Selected compounds were further evaluated through endopeptidase assay. Further binding affinity analysis was done through surface plasmon resonance (SPR) based Proteon™ XPR 36 system. Finally, the in vivo efficacy of these compounds was evaluated in mice model. RESULTS Three compounds NSC1011, NSC1014 and NSC84094 were found to be highly inhibitory after screening of 8-HQ compounds through FTS assay and endopeptidase assay. SPR based protein-small molecule interaction studies showed highest affinity binding of NSC1014 (KD: 5.58E-06) with BoNT/F-LC. NSC1011, NSC1014, and NSC84094 displayed IC50 of 30.47 ± 6.24, 14.91 ± 2.49 and 17.39 ± 2.74 μM, respectively, in endopeptidase assay. NSC1011 and NSC1014 displayed marked extension of survival time in mice model. CONCLUSION NSC1011 and NSC1014 have emerged as promising drug candidate against BoNT/F intoxication displaying higher potential than previously reported compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ritika Chauhan
- Biotechnology Division, Defence Research & Development Establishment, Jhansi Road, Gwalior 474002, MP, India
| | - Vinita Chauhan
- Biotechnology Division, Defence Research & Development Establishment, Jhansi Road, Gwalior 474002, MP, India
| | - Priyanka Sonkar
- Biotechnology Division, Defence Research & Development Establishment, Jhansi Road, Gwalior 474002, MP, India
| | - Manorama Vimal
- Synthetic Chemistry Division, Defence Research & Development Establishment, Jhansi Road, Gwalior 474002, MP, India
| | - Ram Kumar Dhaked
- Biotechnology Division, Defence Research & Development Establishment, Jhansi Road, Gwalior 474002, MP, India.
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Chauhan R, Chauhan V, Sonkar P, Dhaked RK. Identification of Inhibitors against Botulinum Neurotoxins: 8-Hydroxyquinolines Hold Promise. Mini Rev Med Chem 2019; 19:1694-1706. [PMID: 31490749 DOI: 10.2174/1389557519666190906120228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2018] [Revised: 12/13/2018] [Accepted: 08/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) are the most toxic category A biological warfare agents. There is no therapeutics available for BoNT intoxication yet, necessitating the development of a medical countermeasure against these neurotoxins. The discovery of small molecule-based drugs has revolutionized in the last two decades resulting in the identification of several small molecule inhibitors of BoNTs. However, none progressed to clinical trials. 8-Hydroxyquinolines scaffold-based molecules are important 'privileged structures' that can be exploited as inhibitors of a diverse range of targets. In this review, our study of recent reports suggests the development of 8-hydroxyquinoline derived molecules as a potential drug may be on the horizon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ritika Chauhan
- Biotechnology Division, Defence Research & Development Establishment, Jhansi Road, Gwalior-474002, MP, India
| | - Vinita Chauhan
- Biotechnology Division, Defence Research & Development Establishment, Jhansi Road, Gwalior-474002, MP, India
| | - Priyanka Sonkar
- Biotechnology Division, Defence Research & Development Establishment, Jhansi Road, Gwalior-474002, MP, India
| | - Ram Kumar Dhaked
- Biotechnology Division, Defence Research & Development Establishment, Jhansi Road, Gwalior-474002, MP, India
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8
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Chen AY, Adamek RN, Dick BL, Credille CV, Morrison CN, Cohen SM. Targeting Metalloenzymes for Therapeutic Intervention. Chem Rev 2019; 119:1323-1455. [PMID: 30192523 PMCID: PMC6405328 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.8b00201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Metalloenzymes are central to a wide range of essential biological activities, including nucleic acid modification, protein degradation, and many others. The role of metalloenzymes in these processes also makes them central for the progression of many diseases and, as such, makes metalloenzymes attractive targets for therapeutic intervention. Increasing awareness of the role metalloenzymes play in disease and their importance as a class of targets has amplified interest in the development of new strategies to develop inhibitors and ultimately useful drugs. In this Review, we provide a broad overview of several drug discovery efforts focused on metalloenzymes and attempt to map out the current landscape of high-value metalloenzyme targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allie Y Chen
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , University of California, San Diego , La Jolla , California 92093 , United States
| | - Rebecca N Adamek
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , University of California, San Diego , La Jolla , California 92093 , United States
| | - Benjamin L Dick
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , University of California, San Diego , La Jolla , California 92093 , United States
| | - Cy V Credille
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , University of California, San Diego , La Jolla , California 92093 , United States
| | - Christine N Morrison
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , University of California, San Diego , La Jolla , California 92093 , United States
| | - Seth M Cohen
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , University of California, San Diego , La Jolla , California 92093 , United States
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Natural Compounds and Their Analogues as Potent Antidotes against the Most Poisonous Bacterial Toxin. Appl Environ Microbiol 2018; 84:AEM.01280-18. [PMID: 30389764 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01280-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2018] [Accepted: 09/28/2018] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs), the most poisonous proteins known to humankind, are a family of seven (serotype A to G) immunologically distinct proteins synthesized primarily by different strains of the anaerobic bacterium Clostridium botulinum Being the causative agents of botulism, the toxins block neurotransmitter release by specifically cleaving one of the three soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment receptor (SNARE) proteins, thereby inducing flaccid paralysis. The development of countermeasures and therapeutics against BoNTs is a high-priority research area for public health because of their extreme toxicity and potential for use as biowarfare agents. Extensive research has focused on designing antagonists that block the catalytic activity of BoNTs. In this study, we screened 300 small natural compounds and their analogues extracted from Indian plants for their activity against BoNT serotype A (BoNT/A) as well as its light chain (LCA) using biochemical and cellular assays. One natural compound, a nitrophenyl psoralen (NPP), was identified to be a specific inhibitor of LCA with an in vitro 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50) value of 4.74 ± 0.03 µM. NPP was able to rescue endogenous synaptosome-associated protein 25 (SNAP-25) from cleavage by BoNT/A in human neuroblastoma cells with an IC50 of 12.2 ± 1.7 µM, as well as to prolong the time to the blocking of neutrally elicited twitch tensions in isolated mouse phrenic nerve-hemidiaphragm preparations.IMPORTANCE The long-lasting endopeptidase activity of BoNT is a critical biological activity inside the nerve cell, as it prompts proteolysis of the SNARE proteins, involved in the exocytosis of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Thus, the BoNT endopeptidase activity is an appropriate clinical target for designing new small-molecule antidotes against BoNT with the potential to reverse the paralysis syndrome of botulism. In principle, small-molecule inhibitors (SMIs) can gain entry into BoNT-intoxicated cells if they have a suitable octanol-water partition coefficient (log P) value and other favorable characteristics (P. Leeson, Nature 481:455-456, 2012, https://doi.org/10.1038/481455a). Several efforts have been made in the past to develop SMIs, but inhibitors effective under in vitro conditions have not in general been effective in vivo or in cellular models (L. M. Eubanks, M. S. Hixon, W. Jin, S. Hong, et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 104:2602-2607, 2007, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0611213104). The difference between the in vitro and cellular efficacy presumably results from difficulties experienced by the compounds in crossing the cell membrane, in conjunction with poor bioavailability and high cytotoxicity. The screened nitrophenyl psoralen (NPP) effectively antagonized BoNT/A in both in vitro and ex vivo assays. Importantly, NPP inhibited the BoNT/A light chain but not other general zinc endopeptidases, such as thermolysin, suggesting high selectivity for its target. Small-molecule (nonpeptidic) inhibitors have better oral bioavailability, better stability, and better tissue and cell permeation than antitoxins or peptide inhibitors.
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Jacobson AR, Adler M, Silvaggi NR, Allen KN, Smith GM, Fredenburg RA, Stein RL, Park JB, Feng X, Shoemaker CB, Deshpande SS, Goodnough MC, Malizio CJ, Johnson EA, Pellett S, Tepp WH, Tzipori S. Small molecule metalloprotease inhibitor with in vitro, ex vivo and in vivo efficacy against botulinum neurotoxin serotype A. Toxicon 2017; 137:36-47. [PMID: 28698055 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2017.06.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2017] [Revised: 06/28/2017] [Accepted: 06/29/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) are the most toxic substances known to mankind and are the causative agents of the neuroparalytic disease botulism. Their ease of production and extreme toxicity have caused these neurotoxins to be classified as Tier 1 bioterrorist threat agents and have led to a sustained effort to develop countermeasures to treat intoxication in case of a bioterrorist attack. While timely administration of an approved antitoxin is effective in reducing the severity of botulism, reversing intoxication requires different strategies. In the present study, we evaluated ABS 252 and other mercaptoacetamide small molecule active-site inhibitors of BoNT/A light chain using an integrated multi-assay approach. ABS 252 showed inhibitory activity in enzymatic, cell-based and muscle activity assays, and importantly, produced a marked delay in time-to-death in mice. The results suggest that a multi-assay approach is an effective strategy for discovery of potential BoNT therapeutic candidates.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Michael Adler
- Neuroscience Branch, Medical Toxicology Division, USAMRICD, APG, MD, 21010, United States.
| | - Nicholas R Silvaggi
- Department of Chemistry, Boston University, Boston, MA, 02215, United States
| | - Karen N Allen
- Department of Chemistry, Boston University, Boston, MA, 02215, United States
| | | | - Ross A Fredenburg
- Center for Neurologic Diseases, Brigham & Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, MA, 02139, United States
| | - Ross L Stein
- Laboratory for Drug Discovery in Neurodegeneration, Brigham & Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, MA, 02139, United States
| | - Jong-Beak Park
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Tufts University Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, North Grafton, MA, 01536, United States
| | - Xiaochuan Feng
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Tufts University Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, North Grafton, MA, 01536, United States
| | - Charles B Shoemaker
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Tufts University Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, North Grafton, MA, 01536, United States
| | - Sharad S Deshpande
- Neuroscience Branch, Medical Toxicology Division, USAMRICD, APG, MD, 21010, United States
| | | | | | - Eric A Johnson
- Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin at Madison, Madison, WI, 53706, United States
| | - Sabine Pellett
- Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin at Madison, Madison, WI, 53706, United States
| | - William H Tepp
- Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin at Madison, Madison, WI, 53706, United States
| | - Saul Tzipori
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Tufts University Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, North Grafton, MA, 01536, United States
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