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Liu Q, Ma L, Chen F, Zhang S, Huang Z, Zheng X, Chen Z, Ye J, Hou N, Yi W, Zhou Z. Raloxifene-driven benzothiophene derivatives: Discovery, structural refinement, and biological evaluation as potent PPARγ modulators based on drug repurposing. Eur J Med Chem 2024; 269:116325. [PMID: 38527378 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2024.116325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2024] [Revised: 02/26/2024] [Accepted: 03/09/2024] [Indexed: 03/27/2024]
Abstract
By virtue of the drug repurposing strategy, the anti-osteoporosis drug raloxifene was identified as a novel PPARγ ligand through structure-based virtual high throughput screening (SB-VHTS) of FDA-approved drugs and TR-FRET competitive binding assay. Subsequent structural refinement of raloxifene led to the synthesis of a benzothiophene derivative, YGL-12. This compound exhibited potent PPARγ modulation with partial agonism, uniquely promoting adiponectin expression and inhibiting PPARγ Ser273 phosphorylation by CDK5 without inducing the expression of adipongenesis associated genes, including PPARγ, aP2, CD36, FASN and C/EBPα. This specific activity profile resulted in effective hypoglycemic properties, avoiding major TZD-related adverse effects like weight gain and hepatomegaly, which were demonstrated in db/db mice. Molecular docking studies showed that YGL-12 established additional hydrogen bonds with Ile281 and enhanced hydrogen-bond interaction with Ser289 as well as PPARγ Ser273 phosphorylation-related residues Ser342 and Glu343. These findings suggested YGL-12 as a promising T2DM therapeutic candidate, thereby providing a molecular framework for the development of novel PPARγ modulators with an enhanced therapeutic index.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingmei Liu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Molecular Target and Clinical Pharmacology, The State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 511436, China
| | - Lei Ma
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Molecular Target and Clinical Pharmacology, The State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 511436, China
| | - Fangyuan Chen
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Molecular Target and Clinical Pharmacology, The State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 511436, China
| | - Shuyun Zhang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Molecular Target and Clinical Pharmacology, The State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 511436, China
| | - Zexin Huang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Molecular Target and Clinical Pharmacology, The State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 511436, China
| | - Xiufen Zheng
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Molecular Target and Clinical Pharmacology, The State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 511436, China
| | - Zikai Chen
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Molecular Target and Clinical Pharmacology, The State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 511436, China
| | - Junwei Ye
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Molecular Target and Clinical Pharmacology, The State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 511436, China
| | - Ning Hou
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Molecular Target and Clinical Pharmacology, The State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 511436, China.
| | - Wei Yi
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Molecular Target and Clinical Pharmacology, The State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 511436, China.
| | - Zhi Zhou
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Molecular Target and Clinical Pharmacology, The State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 511436, China.
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Liu YC, Wei G, Liao ZQ, Wang FX, Zong C, Qiu J, Le Y, Yu ZL, Yang SY, Wang HS, Dou XB, Wang CY. Design and Synthesis of Novel Indole Ethylamine Derivatives as a Lipid Metabolism Regulator Targeting PPARα/CPT1 in AML12 Cells. Molecules 2023; 29:12. [PMID: 38202597 PMCID: PMC10779794 DOI: 10.3390/molecules29010012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2023] [Revised: 12/13/2023] [Accepted: 12/16/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARα) and carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1 (CPT1) are important targets of lipid metabolism regulation for nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) therapy. In the present study, a set of novel indole ethylamine derivatives (4, 5, 8, 9) were designed and synthesized. The target product (compound 9) can effectively activate PPARα and CPT1a. Consistently, in vitro assays demonstrated its impact on the lipid accumulation of oleic acid (OA)-induced AML12 cells. Compared with AML12 cells treated only with OA, supplementation with 5, 10, and 20 μM of compound 9 reduced the levels of intracellular triglyceride (by 28.07%, 37.55%, and 51.33%) with greater inhibitory activity relative to the commercial PPARα agonist fenofibrate. Moreover, the compound 9 supplementations upregulated the expression of hormone-sensitive triglyceride lipase (HSL) and adipose triglyceride lipase (ATGL) and upregulated the phosphorylation of acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC) related to fatty acid oxidation and lipogenesis. This dual-target compound with lipid metabolism regulatory efficacy may represent a promising type of drug lead for NAFLD therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Chen Liu
- College of Life Science, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou 310053, China; (Y.-C.L.); (C.Z.); (J.Q.); (Y.L.)
| | - Gang Wei
- State Key Laboratory for Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Medicinal Resources/Key Laboratory for Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Medicinal Resources (Ministry of Education of China), School of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Collaborative Innovation Center for Guangxi Ethnic Medicine, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin 541004, China; (G.W.); (Z.-Q.L.); (F.-X.W.); (H.-S.W.)
| | - Zhi-Qiang Liao
- State Key Laboratory for Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Medicinal Resources/Key Laboratory for Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Medicinal Resources (Ministry of Education of China), School of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Collaborative Innovation Center for Guangxi Ethnic Medicine, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin 541004, China; (G.W.); (Z.-Q.L.); (F.-X.W.); (H.-S.W.)
| | - Fang-Xin Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Medicinal Resources/Key Laboratory for Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Medicinal Resources (Ministry of Education of China), School of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Collaborative Innovation Center for Guangxi Ethnic Medicine, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin 541004, China; (G.W.); (Z.-Q.L.); (F.-X.W.); (H.-S.W.)
| | - Chunxiao Zong
- College of Life Science, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou 310053, China; (Y.-C.L.); (C.Z.); (J.Q.); (Y.L.)
| | - Jiannan Qiu
- College of Life Science, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou 310053, China; (Y.-C.L.); (C.Z.); (J.Q.); (Y.L.)
| | - Yifei Le
- College of Life Science, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou 310053, China; (Y.-C.L.); (C.Z.); (J.Q.); (Y.L.)
| | - Zhi-Ling Yu
- School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong, China;
| | - Seo Young Yang
- Department of Biology Education, Teachers College and Institute for Phylogenomics and Evolution, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Republic of Korea;
| | - Heng-Shan Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Medicinal Resources/Key Laboratory for Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Medicinal Resources (Ministry of Education of China), School of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Collaborative Innovation Center for Guangxi Ethnic Medicine, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin 541004, China; (G.W.); (Z.-Q.L.); (F.-X.W.); (H.-S.W.)
| | - Xiao-Bing Dou
- College of Life Science, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou 310053, China; (Y.-C.L.); (C.Z.); (J.Q.); (Y.L.)
| | - Cai-Yi Wang
- College of Life Science, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou 310053, China; (Y.-C.L.); (C.Z.); (J.Q.); (Y.L.)
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You M, Gao Z, Zhou L, Guo C, Guo Q. Investigation of the Vibrational Characteristics of 6-Isocyano-1-Methyl-1H-Indole: Utilizing the Isonitrile Group as an Infrared Probe. Molecules 2023; 28:6939. [PMID: 37836782 PMCID: PMC10574170 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28196939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2023] [Revised: 10/02/2023] [Accepted: 10/04/2023] [Indexed: 10/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Indole derivatives have garnered considerable attention in the realm of biochemistry due to their multifaceted properties. In this study, we undertake a systematic investigation of the vibrational characteristics of a model indole derivative, 6-isocyano-1-methyl-1H-indole (6ICMI), by employing a combination of FTIR, IR pump-probe spectroscopy, and theoretical calculations. Our findings demonstrate a strong dependence of the isonitrile stretching frequency of 6ICMI on the polarizability of protic solvents and the density of hydrogen-bond donor groups in the solvent when the isonitrile group is bonded to aromatic groups. Both experimental and theoretical analyses unveil a significant correlation between the isonitrile stretch vibration of 6ICMI and the solvent acceptor number of alcohols. Furthermore, the polarization-controlled infrared pump-probe conducted on 6ICMI in dimethyl sulfoxide provides additional support for the potential use of the isonitrile stretching mode of 6ICMI as an effective infrared probe for local environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min You
- School of Computer Science and Engineering, Chongqing Three Gorges University, Wanzhou, Chongqing 404100, China
| | - Zilin Gao
- School of Computer Science and Engineering, Chongqing Three Gorges University, Wanzhou, Chongqing 404100, China
| | - Liang Zhou
- Department of Physics and Applied Optics Beijing Area Major Laboratory, Center for Advanced Quantum Studies, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China;
| | - Changyuan Guo
- Key Laboratory of Intelligent Air-Ground Cooperative Control for Universities in Chongqing, College of Automation, Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Chongqing 400065, China
| | - Qiang Guo
- Shanxi Province Key Laboratory of Higee-Oriented Chemical Engineering, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, North University of China, Taiyuan 030051, China
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Ma L, Tang J, Cai G, Chen F, Liu Q, Zhou Z, Zhang S, Liu X, Hou N, Yi W. Structure-based screening and biological validation of the anti-thrombotic drug-dicoumarol as a novel and potent PPARγ-modulating ligand. Bioorg Chem 2022; 129:106191. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2022.106191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2022] [Revised: 09/17/2022] [Accepted: 09/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Development of Heterocyclic PPAR Ligands for Potential Therapeutic Applications. Pharmaceutics 2022; 14:pharmaceutics14102139. [PMID: 36297575 PMCID: PMC9611956 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14102139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2022] [Revised: 09/27/2022] [Accepted: 09/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The family of nuclear peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARα, PPARβ/δ, and PPARγ) is a set of ligand-activated transcription factors that regulate different functions in the body. Whereas activation of PPARα is known to reduce the levels of circulating triglycerides and regulate energy homeostasis, the activation of PPARγ brings about insulin sensitization and increases the metabolism of glucose. On the other hand, PPARβ when activated increases the metabolism of fatty acids. Further, these PPARs have been claimed to be utilized in various metabolic, neurological, and inflammatory diseases, neurodegenerative disorders, fertility or reproduction, pain, and obesity. A series of different heterocyclic scaffolds have been synthesized and evaluated for their ability to act as PPAR agonists. This review is a compilation of efforts on the part of medicinal chemists around the world to find novel compounds that may act as PPAR ligands along with patents in regards to PPAR ligands. The structure-activity relationship, as well as docking studies, have been documented to better understand the mechanistic investigations of various compounds, which will eventually aid in the design and development of new PPAR ligands. From the results of the structural activity relationship through the pharmacological and in silico evaluation the potency of heterocycles as PPAR ligands can be described in terms of their hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic interactions, and other interactions with PPAR.
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A novel peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma ligand improves insulin sensitivity and promotes browning of white adipose tissue in obese mice. Mol Metab 2021; 54:101363. [PMID: 34710641 PMCID: PMC8627988 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmet.2021.101363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2021] [Revised: 10/18/2021] [Accepted: 10/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective Nuclear receptor Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor γ (PPARγ) is a promising target for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. The antidiabetic drug thiazolidinediones (TZDs) are potent insulin sensitizers as full agonists of PPARγ, but cause unwanted side effects. Recent discoveries have shown that TZDs improve insulin sensitivity by blocking PPARγ phosphorylation at S273, which decouples the full agonism-associated side effects. PPARγ ligands that act through the blockage of PPARγ phosphorylation but lack the full agonist activity would be expected to improve insulin sensitivity without TZD-associated side effects, however, chemicals that carry such traits and bind to PPARγ with high-affinity are lacking. Moreover, TZDs are known to promote white-to-brown adipocyte conversion and energy expenditure and appear to require their full agonism on PPARγ for this activity. It is unknown whether a partial or non-TZD agonist of PPARγ is capable of promoting browning effect. In this study, we developed a novel non-TZD partial agonist of PPARγ and investigated its function on insulin sensitivity and white-to-brown conversion and energy expenditure in diet-induced obese mice. Methods A novel indole-based chemical WO95E was designed via medicinal chemistry and tested for PPARγ binding and activity and for the effect on PPARγ phosphorylation. Diet-induced obese mice were administered with WO95E for 4 weeks. Insulin sensitivity, glucose tolerance, body weight, fat tissue weight, adipocyte size, morphology, energy expenditure, and expression levels of genes involved in PPARγ activity, thermogenesis/browning, and TZD-related side effects were evaluated. Results WO95E binds to PPARγ with high affinity and acts as a PPARγ partial agonist. WO95E inhibits PPARγ phosphorylation and regulates PPARγ phosphorylation-dependent genes. WO95E ameliorates insulin resistance and glucose tolerance in mice of diet-induced obesity, with minimal TZD use-associated side effects. We found that WO95E promotes white-to-brown adipocyte conversion and energy expenditure and hence protects against diet-induced obesity. WO95E decreases the size of adipocytes and suppresses adipose tissue inflammation. WO95E also suppresses obesity-associated liver steatosis. Conclusions WO95E improves insulin sensitivity and glucose homeostasis and promotes browning and energy expenditure by acting as a novel PPARγ phosphorylation inhibitor/partial agonist. Our findings suggest the potential of this compound or its derivative for the therapeutic treatment of insulin resistance and obesity. A novel non-TZD PPARγ modulator WO95E acts as a PPARγ partial agonist and inhibits PPARγ phosphorylation at S273. WO95E ameliorates insulin resistance and glucose tolerance and protects against diet-induced weight gain in DIO mice. WO95E is the first non-TZD PPARγ partial agonist that promotes white-to-brown adipocyte conversion and energy expenditure. WO95E exhibits minimal TZD use-associated side effects.
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Ma L, Lian Y, Tang J, Chen F, Gao H, Zhou Z, Hou N, Yi W. Identification of the anti-fungal drug fenticonazole nitrate as a novel PPARγ-modulating ligand with good therapeutic index: Structure-based screening and biological validation. Pharmacol Res 2021; 173:105860. [PMID: 34461220 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2021.105860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2021] [Revised: 08/16/2021] [Accepted: 08/25/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
In this study, SB-VHTS of the old drug library was conducted to seek for novel PPARγ ligand. In the end, an antifungal drug, FN, was identified in vitro and in vivo as a new and potent PPARγ-modulating ligand to demonstrate significantly anti-diabetic and anti-NAFLD efficacies with minimized side effects induced by PPARγ full agonists TZDs drugs. Further mechanistic investigations revealed that FN showed such desired pharmacological properties mainly through selectively activating the expressions of Adiponectin and GLUT4, effectively promoting the Akt Ser473 phosphorylation, inhibiting the expressions of proinflammatory genes including TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 and blocking the PPARγ Ser273 phosphorylation mediated by CDK5 without leading to adipogenesis and increasing the expressions of key adipogenic genes CD36, AP2, LPL, C/EBPα, FASN and PPARγ. Subsequently, a molecular docking study revealed an interesting binding mode between FN and PPARγ LBD including the hydrogen-bonding network among oxygen atom, sulfur atom and nitrogen atom in FN respectively with the PPARγ residues Cys285, Tyr327 and Ser342, which gave proof of concept for the above anti-diabetic action mechanism. Taken together, our findings not only suggest that FN can serve as the new, safe and highly efficacious anti-diabetic and anti-NAFLD agents for clinical use, they can also provide a molecular basis for the future development of PPARγ modulators with a high therapeutic index and the possibility to explore new uses of old drugs for immediate drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Ma
- Guangzhou Municipal and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Protein Modification and Degradation & Molecular Target and Clinical Pharmacology, the State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences & the Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 511436, China
| | - Yuling Lian
- Guangzhou Municipal and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Protein Modification and Degradation & Molecular Target and Clinical Pharmacology, the State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences & the Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 511436, China
| | - Junyuan Tang
- Guangzhou Municipal and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Protein Modification and Degradation & Molecular Target and Clinical Pharmacology, the State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences & the Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 511436, China
| | - Fangyuan Chen
- Guangzhou Municipal and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Protein Modification and Degradation & Molecular Target and Clinical Pharmacology, the State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences & the Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 511436, China
| | - Hui Gao
- Guangzhou Municipal and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Protein Modification and Degradation & Molecular Target and Clinical Pharmacology, the State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences & the Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 511436, China
| | - Zhi Zhou
- Guangzhou Municipal and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Protein Modification and Degradation & Molecular Target and Clinical Pharmacology, the State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences & the Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 511436, China.
| | - Ning Hou
- Guangzhou Municipal and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Protein Modification and Degradation & Molecular Target and Clinical Pharmacology, the State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences & the Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 511436, China.
| | - Wei Yi
- Guangzhou Municipal and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Protein Modification and Degradation & Molecular Target and Clinical Pharmacology, the State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences & the Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 511436, China.
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Dowarah J, Singh VP. Anti-diabetic drugs recent approaches and advancements. Bioorg Med Chem 2020; 28:115263. [PMID: 32008883 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2019.115263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2019] [Revised: 11/20/2019] [Accepted: 12/11/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Diabetes is one of the major diseases worldwide and is the third leading cause of death in the United States. Anti-diabetic drugs are used in the treatment of diabetes mellitus to control glucose levels in the blood. Most of the drugs are administered orally, except for a few of them, such as insulin, exenatide, and pramlintide. In this review, we are going to discuss seven major types of anti-diabetic drugs: Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) agonist, protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B (PTP1B) inhibitors, aldose reductase inhibitors, α-glucosidase inhibitors, dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPP-4) inhibitors, G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) agonists and sodium-glucose co-transporter (SGLT) inhibitors. Here, we are also discussing some of the recently reported anti-diabetic agents with its multi-target pharmacological actions. This review summarises recent approaches and advancement in anti-diabetes treatment concerning characteristics, structure-activity relationships, functional mechanisms, expression regulation, and applications in medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jayanta Dowarah
- Department of Chemistry, Physical Sciences, Mizoram University, Aizawl 796004, Mizoram, India
| | - Ved Prakash Singh
- Department of Chemistry, Physical Sciences, Mizoram University, Aizawl 796004, Mizoram, India.
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