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Nuñez IA, Crane A, Crozier I, Worwa G, Kuhn JH. Treatment of highly virulent mammarenavirus infections-status quo and future directions. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2024; 19:537-551. [PMID: 38606475 PMCID: PMC11069405 DOI: 10.1080/17460441.2024.2340494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2024] [Accepted: 04/04/2024] [Indexed: 04/13/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Mammarenaviruses are negative-sense bisegmented enveloped RNA viruses that are endemic in Africa, the Americas, and Europe. Several are highly virulent, causing acute human diseases associated with high case fatality rates, and are considered to be significant with respect to public health impact or bioterrorism threat. AREAS COVERED This review summarizes the status quo of treatment development, starting with drugs that are in advanced stages of evaluation in early clinical trials, followed by promising candidate medical countermeasures emerging from bench analyses and investigational animal research. EXPERT OPINION Specific therapeutic treatments for diseases caused by mammarenaviruses remain limited to the off-label use of ribavirin and transfusion of convalescent sera. Progress in identifying novel candidate medical countermeasures against mammarenavirus infection has been slow in part because of the biosafety and biosecurity requirements. However, novel methodologies and tools have enabled increasingly efficient high-throughput molecular screens of regulatory-agency-approved small-molecule drugs and led to the identification of several compounds that could be repurposed for the treatment of infection with several mammarenaviruses. Unfortunately, most of them have not yet been evaluated in vivo. The most promising treatment under development is a monoclonal antibody cocktail that is protective against multiple lineages of the Lassa virus in nonhuman primate disease models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivette A. Nuñez
- Integrated Research Facility at Fort Detrick, Division of
Clinical Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National
Institutes of Health, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD21702, USA
| | - Anya Crane
- Integrated Research Facility at Fort Detrick, Division of
Clinical Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National
Institutes of Health, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD21702, USA
| | - Ian Crozier
- Clinical Monitoring Research Program Directorate, Frederick
National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | - Gabriella Worwa
- Integrated Research Facility at Fort Detrick, Division of
Clinical Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National
Institutes of Health, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD21702, USA
| | - Jens H. Kuhn
- Integrated Research Facility at Fort Detrick, Division of
Clinical Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National
Institutes of Health, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD21702, USA
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Iyer K, Yan Z, Ross SR. Entry inhibitors as arenavirus antivirals. Front Microbiol 2024; 15:1382953. [PMID: 38650890 PMCID: PMC11033450 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2024.1382953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2024] [Accepted: 03/25/2024] [Indexed: 04/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Arenaviruses belonging to the Arenaviridae family, genus mammarenavirus, are enveloped, single-stranded RNA viruses primarily found in rodent species, that cause severe hemorrhagic fever in humans. With high mortality rates and limited treatment options, the search for effective antivirals is imperative. Current treatments, notably ribavirin and other nucleoside inhibitors, are only partially effective and have significant side effects. The high lethality and lack of treatment, coupled with the absence of vaccines for all but Junín virus, has led to the classification of these viruses as Category A pathogens by the Centers for Disease Control (CDC). This review focuses on entry inhibitors as potential therapeutics against mammarenaviruses, which include both New World and Old World arenaviruses. Various entry inhibition strategies, including small molecule inhibitors and neutralizing antibodies, have been explored through high throughput screening, genome-wide studies, and drug repurposing. Notable progress has been made in identifying molecules that target receptor binding, internalization, or fusion steps. Despite promising preclinical results, the translation of entry inhibitors to approved human therapeutics has faced challenges. Many have only been tested in in vitro or animal models, and a number of candidates showed efficacy only against specific arenaviruses, limiting their broader applicability. The widespread existence of arenaviruses in various rodent species and their potential for their zoonotic transmission also underscores the need for rapid development and deployment of successful pan-arenavirus therapeutics. The diverse pool of candidate molecules in the pipeline provides hope for the eventual discovery of a broadly effective arenavirus antiviral.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Susan R. Ross
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Illinois, College of Medicine, Chicago, IL, United States
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Rebryk A, Koschorreck J, Haglund P. Temporal trends of lipophilic organic contaminants in blue mussel (1994-2017) and eelpout (1994-2017) from the southern Baltic Sea. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 897:166282. [PMID: 37597558 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.166282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2023] [Revised: 08/11/2023] [Accepted: 08/11/2023] [Indexed: 08/21/2023]
Abstract
A time-trend study was carried out for two important Baltic Sea species, blue mussel (1994-2017, 11 samples) and eelpout (1994-2017, 11 samples), to track the changes in levels of regulated persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and show potential increases in the levels of the contaminants of emerging concern (CECs). It was carried out utilizing gas chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry (GC-HRMS) based non-target screening (NTS). Data were acquired in two modes - electron ionization (EI) and electron capture negative ion chemical ionization (ECNI) - to widen the contaminant coverage, and treated using a fast semi-automated NTS data processing workflow. The study revealed that >250 tentatively identified compounds show statistically significant temporal trends in Baltic blue mussel and eelpout. A large number of regulated substances, including but not limited to PCBs, DDTs and other organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), chlorobenzenes, and many polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), showed significant declining trends, as was expected. Their rates of decline were in good agreement with previously reported data. In contrast, increasing trends were observed for many CECs, some polycyclic aromatic compounds (PAHs), and hydrocarbons. The CEC group included, among others, four compounds, namely, one personal care product ingredient, 2-ethylhexyl stearate, one brominated compound 1,2,3,5-tetrabromobenzene and two intermediates 4-isopropoxyaniline and bilobol dimethyl ether, that were reported in marine biota for the first time to the best of our knowledge. Several compounds, including four CECs and two unknown brominated compounds, showed levels considerably higher than the common legacy pollutants (CB-153 and BDE-99), which might be taken into consideration for future monitoring and risk assessment. In addition, this work revealed the presence of a plethora of organoiodinated compounds that exhibited statistically significant temporal trends in the samples under study, which could be of future interest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andriy Rebryk
- Department of Chemistry, Chemical Biological Centre (KBC), Umeå University, Linnaeus väg 6, 901 87, Umeå, Sweden.
| | - Jan Koschorreck
- Federal Environment Agency (Umweltbundesamt), Colditzstraße 34, 14193, Berlin, Germany
| | - Peter Haglund
- Department of Chemistry, Chemical Biological Centre (KBC), Umeå University, Linnaeus väg 6, 901 87, Umeå, Sweden
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Ibba R, Corona P, Nonne F, Caria P, Serreli G, Palmas V, Riu F, Sestito S, Nieddu M, Loddo R, Sanna G, Piras S, Carta A. Design, Synthesis, and Antiviral Activities of New Benzotriazole-Based Derivatives. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2023; 16:ph16030429. [PMID: 36986528 PMCID: PMC10054465 DOI: 10.3390/ph16030429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2023] [Revised: 03/03/2023] [Accepted: 03/07/2023] [Indexed: 03/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Several human diseases are caused by enteroviruses and are currently clinically untreatable, pushing the research to identify new antivirals. A notable number of benzo[d][1,2,3]triazol-1(2)-yl derivatives were designed, synthesized, and in vitro evaluated for cytotoxicity and antiviral activity against a wide spectrum of RNA positive- and negative-sense viruses. Five of them (11b, 18e, 41a, 43a, 99b) emerged for their selective antiviral activity against Coxsackievirus B5, a human enteroviruses member among the Picornaviridae family. The EC50 values ranged between 6 and 18.5 μM. Among all derivatives, compounds 18e and 43a were interestingly active against CVB5 and were selected to better define the safety profile on cell monolayers by transepithelial resistance test (TEER). Results indicated compound 18e as the hit compound to investigate the potential mechanism of action by apoptosis assay, virucidal activity test, and the time of addition assay. CVB5 is known to be cytotoxic by inducing apoptosis in infected cells; in this study, compound 18e was proved to protect cells from viral infection. Notably, cells were mostly protected when pre-treated with derivative 18e, which had, however, no virucidal activity. From the performed biological assays, compound 18e turned out to be non-cytotoxic as well as cell protective against CVB5 infection, with a mechanism of action ascribable to an interaction on the early phase of infection, by hijacking the viral attachment process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberta Ibba
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Pharmacy, University of Sassari, Via Muroni, 23/A, 07100 Sassari, Italy; (R.I.); (P.C.); (F.R.); (M.N.)
| | - Paola Corona
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Pharmacy, University of Sassari, Via Muroni, 23/A, 07100 Sassari, Italy; (R.I.); (P.C.); (F.R.); (M.N.)
| | - Francesca Nonne
- GSK Vaccine Institute for Global Health GSK, Via Fiorentina, 1, 53100 Siena, Italy;
| | - Paola Caria
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Section of Microbiology and Virology, University of Cagliari, Cittadella Universitaria, 09042 Monserrato, Italy; (P.C.); (G.S.); (V.P.); (R.L.)
| | - Gabriele Serreli
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Section of Microbiology and Virology, University of Cagliari, Cittadella Universitaria, 09042 Monserrato, Italy; (P.C.); (G.S.); (V.P.); (R.L.)
| | - Vanessa Palmas
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Section of Microbiology and Virology, University of Cagliari, Cittadella Universitaria, 09042 Monserrato, Italy; (P.C.); (G.S.); (V.P.); (R.L.)
| | - Federico Riu
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Pharmacy, University of Sassari, Via Muroni, 23/A, 07100 Sassari, Italy; (R.I.); (P.C.); (F.R.); (M.N.)
- Department of Chemistry, Biomedicinskt Centrum, BMC, Uppsala University, Box 576, 75123 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Simona Sestito
- Department of Chemical, Physical, Mathematical and Natural Sciences, University of Sassari, Via Vienna 2, 07100 Sassari, Italy;
| | - Maria Nieddu
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Pharmacy, University of Sassari, Via Muroni, 23/A, 07100 Sassari, Italy; (R.I.); (P.C.); (F.R.); (M.N.)
| | - Roberta Loddo
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Section of Microbiology and Virology, University of Cagliari, Cittadella Universitaria, 09042 Monserrato, Italy; (P.C.); (G.S.); (V.P.); (R.L.)
| | - Giuseppina Sanna
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Section of Microbiology and Virology, University of Cagliari, Cittadella Universitaria, 09042 Monserrato, Italy; (P.C.); (G.S.); (V.P.); (R.L.)
- Correspondence: (G.S.); (S.P.)
| | - Sandra Piras
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Pharmacy, University of Sassari, Via Muroni, 23/A, 07100 Sassari, Italy; (R.I.); (P.C.); (F.R.); (M.N.)
- Correspondence: (G.S.); (S.P.)
| | - Antonio Carta
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Pharmacy, University of Sassari, Via Muroni, 23/A, 07100 Sassari, Italy; (R.I.); (P.C.); (F.R.); (M.N.)
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Khatun S, Singh A, Bader GN, Sofi FA. Imidazopyridine, a promising scaffold with potential medicinal applications and structural activity relationship (SAR): recent advances. J Biomol Struct Dyn 2022; 40:14279-14302. [PMID: 34779710 DOI: 10.1080/07391102.2021.1997818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Imidazopyridine scaffold has gained tremendous importance over the past few decades. Imidazopyridines have been expeditiously used for the rationale design and development of novel synthetic analogs for various therapeutic disorders. A wide variety of imidazopyridine derivatives have been developed as potential anti-cancer, anti-diabetic, anti-tubercular, anti-microbial, anti-viral, anti-inflammatory, central nervous system (CNS) agents besides other chemotherapeutic agents. Imidazopyridine heterocyclic system acts as a key pharmacophore motif for the identification and optimization of lead structures to increase medicinal chemistry toolbox. The present review highlights the medicinal significances of imidazopyridines for their rationale development as lead molecules with improved therapeutic efficacies. This review further emphasis on the structure-activity relationships (SARs) of the various designed imidazopyridines to establish a relationship between the key structural features versus the biological activities.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samima Khatun
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Punjab, India
| | - Abhinav Singh
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Punjab, India
| | - Ghulam N Bader
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Applied Sciences and Technology, University of Kashmir, Srinagar, J & K, India
| | - Firdoos Ahmad Sofi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Applied Sciences and Technology, University of Kashmir, Srinagar, J & K, India
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Westover JB, Naik S, Bailey KW, Wandersee L, Gantla VR, Hickerson BT, McCormack K, Henkel G, Gowen BB. Severe mammarenaviral disease in guinea pigs effectively treated by an orally bioavailable fusion inhibitor, alone or in combination with favipiravir. Antiviral Res 2022; 208:105444. [PMID: 36243175 PMCID: PMC10187609 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2022.105444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2022] [Revised: 10/05/2022] [Accepted: 10/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Infections by pathogenic New World mammarenaviruses (NWM)s, including Junín virus (JUNV), can result in a severe life-threatening viral hemorrhagic fever syndrome. In the absence of FDA-licensed vaccines or antivirals, these viruses are considered high priority pathogens. The mammarenavirus envelope glycoprotein complex (GPC) mediates pH-dependent fusion between viral and cellular membranes, which is essential to viral entry and may be vulnerable to small-molecule inhibitors that disrupt this process. ARN-75039 is a potent fusion inhibitor of a broad spectrum of pseudotyped and native mammarenaviruses in cell culture and Tacaribe virus infection in mice. In the present study, we evaluated ARN-75039 against pathogenic JUNV in the rigorous guinea pig infection model. The compound was well-tolerated and had favorable pharmacokinetics supporting once-per-day oral dosing in guinea pigs. Importantly, significant protection against JUNV challenge was observed even when ARN-75039 was withheld until 6 days after the viral challenge when clinical signs of disease are starting to develop. We also show that ARN-75039 combination treatment with favipiravir, a viral polymerase inhibitor, results in synergistic activity in vitro and improves survival outcomes in JUNV-challenged guinea pigs. Our findings support the continued development of ARN-75039 as an attractive therapeutic candidate for treating mammarenaviral hemorrhagic fevers, including those associated with NWM infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonna B Westover
- Institute for Antiviral Research, Department of Animal, Dairy and Veterinary Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, UT, USA
| | | | - Kevin W Bailey
- Institute for Antiviral Research, Department of Animal, Dairy and Veterinary Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, UT, USA
| | - Luci Wandersee
- Institute for Antiviral Research, Department of Animal, Dairy and Veterinary Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, UT, USA
| | | | - Brady T Hickerson
- Institute for Antiviral Research, Department of Animal, Dairy and Veterinary Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, UT, USA
| | | | | | - Brian B Gowen
- Institute for Antiviral Research, Department of Animal, Dairy and Veterinary Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, UT, USA.
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Abstract
Lassa Fever (LF) is a viral hemorrhagic fever endemic in West Africa. LF begins with flu-like symptoms that are difficult to distinguish from other common endemic diseases such as malaria, dengue, and yellow fever making it hard to diagnose clinically. Availability of a rapid diagnostic test and other serological and molecular assays facilitates accurate diagnosis of LF. Lassa virus therapeutics are currently in different stages of preclinical development. Arevirumab, a cocktail of monoclonal antibodies, demonstrates a great safety and efficacy profile in non-human primates. Major efforts have been made in the development of a Lassa virus vaccine. Two vaccine candidates, MeV-NP and pLASV-GPC are undergoing evaluation in phase I clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lilia I Melnik
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Tulane University School of Medicine, 1430 Tulane Avenue, New Orleans, LA, 70118, USA.
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Gallo GL, López N, Loureiro ME. The Virus–Host Interplay in Junín Mammarenavirus Infection. Viruses 2022; 14:v14061134. [PMID: 35746604 PMCID: PMC9228484 DOI: 10.3390/v14061134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2022] [Revised: 04/26/2022] [Accepted: 04/28/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Junín virus (JUNV) belongs to the Arenaviridae family and is the causative agent of Argentine hemorrhagic fever (AHF), a severe human disease endemic to agricultural areas in Argentina. At this moment, there are no effective antiviral therapeutics to battle pathogenic arenaviruses. Cumulative reports from recent years have widely provided information on cellular factors playing key roles during JUNV infection. In this review, we summarize research on host molecular determinants that intervene in the different stages of the viral life cycle: viral entry, replication, assembly and budding. Alongside, we describe JUNV tight interplay with the innate immune system. We also review the development of different reverse genetics systems and their use as tools to study JUNV biology and its close teamwork with the host. Elucidating relevant interactions of the virus with the host cell machinery is highly necessary to better understand the mechanistic basis beyond virus multiplication, disease pathogenesis and viral subversion of the immune response. Altogether, this knowledge becomes essential for identifying potential targets for the rational design of novel antiviral treatments to combat JUNV as well as other pathogenic arenaviruses.
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Chen J, Wen K, Wu Y, Shi J, Yao X, Tang X. Transition Metal Catalyst-Free C-3 Sulfonylmethylation of Imidazo[1,2- a]pyridines with Glyoxylic Acid and Sodium Sulfinates in Water. J Org Chem 2022; 87:3780-3787. [PMID: 35133825 DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.1c02856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Herein, we describe an efficient and benign protocol for direct C-3 sulfonylmethylation of imidazo[1,2-a]pyridines with glyoxylic acid and sodium sulfinates. Various sulfonylmethylated imidazo[1,2-a]pyridines were synthesized in water under transition metal catalyst-free conditions. This multicomponent reaction featured available substrates, good functional group tolerance, moderate to excellent yields, and mild reaction conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiewen Chen
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southern Medical University, 1023 South Shatai Road, Baiyun District, Guangzhou 510515, People's Republic of China
| | - Kangmei Wen
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southern Medical University, 1023 South Shatai Road, Baiyun District, Guangzhou 510515, People's Republic of China
| | - Yinrong Wu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southern Medical University, 1023 South Shatai Road, Baiyun District, Guangzhou 510515, People's Republic of China
| | - Jie Shi
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southern Medical University, 1023 South Shatai Road, Baiyun District, Guangzhou 510515, People's Republic of China
| | - Xingang Yao
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southern Medical University, 1023 South Shatai Road, Baiyun District, Guangzhou 510515, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaodong Tang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southern Medical University, 1023 South Shatai Road, Baiyun District, Guangzhou 510515, People's Republic of China
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Gowen BB, Naik S, Westover JB, Brown ER, Gantla VR, Fetsko A, Dagley AL, Blotter DJ, Anderson N, McCormack K, Henkel G. Potent inhibition of arenavirus infection by a novel fusion inhibitor. Antiviral Res 2021; 193:105125. [PMID: 34197863 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2021.105125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2021] [Revised: 06/22/2021] [Accepted: 06/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Several arenaviruses, including Lassa and Lujo viruses in Africa and five New World arenavirus (NWA) species in the Americas, cause life-threatening viral hemorrhagic fevers. In the absence of licensed antiviral therapies, these viruses pose a significant public health risk. The envelope glycoprotein complex (GPC) mediates arenavirus entry through a pH-dependent fusion of the viral and host endosomal membranes. It thus is recognized as a viable target for small-molecule fusion inhibitors. Here, we report on the antiviral activity and pre-clinical development of the novel broad-spectrum arenavirus fusion inhibitors, ARN-75039 and ARN-75041. In Tacaribe virus (TCRV) pseudotyped and native virus assays, the ARN compounds were active in the low to sub-nanomolar range with selectivity indices exceeding 1000. Pharmacokinetic analysis of the orally administered compounds revealed an extended half-life in mice supporting once-daily dosing, and the compounds were well tolerated at the highest tested dose of 100 mg/kg. In a proof-of-concept prophylactic efficacy study, doses of 10 and 35 mg/kg of either compound dramatically improved survival outcome and potently inhibited TCRV replication in serum and various tissues. Additionally, in contrast to surviving mice that received ribavirin or placebo, animals treated with ARN-75039 or ARN-75041 were cured of TCRV infection. In a follow-up study with ARN-75039, impressive therapeutic efficacy was demonstrated under conditions where treatment was withheld until after the onset of disease. Taken together, the data strongly support the continued development of ARN-75039 as a candidate therapeutic for the treatment of severe arenaviral diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian B Gowen
- Department of Animal, Dairy and Veterinary Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, UT, USA.
| | | | - Jonna B Westover
- Department of Animal, Dairy and Veterinary Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, UT, USA
| | | | | | | | - Ashley L Dagley
- Department of Animal, Dairy and Veterinary Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, UT, USA
| | - Dallan J Blotter
- Department of Animal, Dairy and Veterinary Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, UT, USA
| | - Nicole Anderson
- Department of Animal, Dairy and Veterinary Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, UT, USA
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