Titanium surface topography affects collagen biosynthesis of adherent cells

Exosomal cargos-mediated metabolic reprogramming in tumor microenvironment

Metabolic reprogramming is one of the hallmarks of cancer. As nutrients are scarce in the tumor microenvironment (TME), tumor cells adopt multiple metabolic adaptations to meet their growth requirements. Metabolic reprogramming is not only present in tumor cells, but exosomal cargos mediates intercellular communication between tumor cells and non-tumor cells in the TME, inducing metabolic remodeling to create an outpost of microvascular enrichment and immune escape. Here, we highlight the composition and characteristics of TME, meanwhile summarize the components of exosomal cargos and their corresponding sorting mode. Functionally, these exosomal cargos-mediated metabolic reprogramming improves the "soil" for tumor growth and metastasis. Moreover, we discuss the abnormal tumor metabolism targeted by exosomal cargos and its potential antitumor therapy. In conclusion, this review updates the current role of exosomal cargos in TME metabolic reprogramming and enriches the future application scenarios of exosomes.

The Implant Proteome—The Right Surgical Glue to Fix Titanium Implants In Situ

Titanium implants are frequently applied to the bone in orthopedic and trauma surgery. Although these biomaterials are characterized by excellent implant survivorship and clinical outcomes, there are almost no data available on the initial protein layer binding to the implant surface in situ. This study aims to investigate the composition of the initial protein layer on endoprosthetic surfaces as a key initiating step in osseointegration. In patients qualified for total hip arthroplasty, the implants are inserted into the femoral canal, fixed and subsequently explanted after 2 and 5 min. The proteins adsorbed to the surface (the implant proteome) are analyzed by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). A statistical analysis of the proteins’ alteration with longer incubation times reveals a slight change in their abundance according to the Vroman effect. The pathways involved in the extracellular matrix organization of bone, sterile inflammation and the beginning of an immunogenic response governed by neutrophils are significantly enriched based on the analysis of the implant proteome. Those are generally not changed with longer incubation times. In summary, proteins relevant for osseointegration are already adsorbed within 2 min in situ. A deeper understanding of the in situ protein–implant interactions in patients may contribute to optimizing implant surfaces in orthopedic and trauma surgery.

Characterization and evaluation of a femtosecond laser-induced osseointegration and an anti-inflammatory structure generated on a titanium alloy

Cell–material interactions during early osseointegration of the bone–implant interface are critical and involve crosstalk between osteoblasts and osteoclasts. The surface properties of titanium implants also play a critical role in cell–material interactions. In this study, femtosecond laser treatment and sandblasting were used to alter the surface morphology, roughness and wettability of a titanium alloy. Osteoblasts and osteoclasts were then cultured on the resulting titanium alloy disks. Four disk groups were tested: a polished titanium alloy (pTi) control; a hydrophilic micro-dislocation titanium alloy (sandblasted Ti (STi)); a hydrophobic nano-mastoid Ti alloy (femtosecond laser-treated Ti (FTi)); and a hydrophilic hierarchical hybrid micro-/nanostructured Ti alloy [femtosecond laser-treated and sandblasted Ti (FSTi)]. The titanium surface treated by the femtosecond laser and sandblasting showed higher biomineralization activity and lower cytotoxicity in simulated body fluid and lactate dehydrogenase assays. Compared to the control surface, the multifunctional titanium surface induced a better cellular response in terms of proliferation, differentiation, mineralization and collagen secretion. Further investigation of macrophage polarization revealed that increased anti-inflammatory factor secretion and decreased proinflammatory factor secretion occurred in the early response of macrophages. Based on the above results, the synergistic effect of the surface properties produced an excellent cellular response at the bone–implant interface, which was mainly reflected by the promotion of early ossteointegration and macrophage polarization.

Antibacterial biomaterials in bone tissue engineering

Bone infection is a devastating disease characterized by recurrence, drug-resistance, and high morbidity, that has prompted clinicians and scientists to develop novel approaches to combat it. Currently, although numerous biomaterials that possess excellent biocompatibility, biodegradability, porosity, and mechanical strength have been developed, their lack of effective antibacterial ability substantially limits bone-defect treatment efficacy. There is, accordingly, a pressing need to design antibacterial biomaterials for effective bone-infection prevention and treatment. This review focuses on antibacterial biomaterials and strategies; it presents recently reported biomaterials, including antibacterial implants, antibacterial scaffolds, antibacterial hydrogels, and antibacterial bone cement types, and aims to provide an overview of these antibacterial materials for application in biomedicine. The antibacterial mechanisms of these materials are discussed as well.

Hydrophilic titanium surface modulates early stages of osseointegration in osteoporosis

OBJECTIVE

Using a mouse osteoporotic model, this study aimed to determine the influence of hydrophilic titanium surfaces on gene expression and bone formation during the osseointegration process.

BACKGROUND

Based on the previous evidence, it is plausible to assume that osteoporotic bone has a different potential of bone healing. Therefore, implant surface modification study that aims at enhancing bone formation to further improve short- and long-term clinical outcomes in osteoporosis is necessary.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Fifty female, 3-month-old mice were included in this study. Osteoporosis was induced by ovariectomy (OVX, test group) in 25 mice. The further 25 mice had ovaries exposed but not removed (SHAM, control group). Seven weeks following the ovariectomy procedures, one customized implant (0.7 × 8 mm) of each surface was placed in each femur for both groups. Implants had either a hydrophobic surface (SAE) or a hydrophilic treatment surface (SAE-HD). Calcium (Ca) and phosphorus (P) content was measured by energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) after 7 days. The femurs were analyzed for bone-to-implant contact (BIC) and bone volume fraction (BV) by nano-computed tomography (nano-CT) after 14 and 28 days. Same specimens were further submitted to histological analysis. Additionally, after 3 and 7 days, implants were removed and cells were collected around the implant to access gene expression profile of key osteogenic (Runx2, Alp, Sp7, Bsp, Sost, Ocn) and inflammatory genes (IL-1β, IL-10, Tnf-α, and Nos2) by qRT-PCR assay. Statistical analysis was performed by ANOVA and paired t test with significance at P < .05.

RESULTS

The amount of Ca and P deposited on the surface due to the mineralization process was higher for SAE-HD compared to SAE on the intra-group analysis. Nano-CT and histology revealed more BV and BIC for SAE-HD in SHAM and OVX groups compared to SAE. Analysis in OVX group showed that most genes (ie, ALP, Runx2) involved in the bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signaling were significantly activated in the hydrophilic treatment.

CONCLUSION

Both surfaces were able to modulate bone responses toward osteoblast differentiation. SAE-HD presented a faster response in terms of bone formation and osteogenic gene expression compared to SAE. Hydrophilic surface in situations of osteoporosis seems to provide additional benefits in the early stages of osseointegration.

Dual Therapy Coating on Micro/Nanoscale Porous Polyetheretherketone to Eradicate Biofilms and Accelerate Bone Tissue Repair

Defective osteogenesis and latent infections continue to be two major issues in the therapy of bone tissue regeneration. In this study, a unique hierarchically micro/nanoscale-architecture is first proposed and produced on polyetheretherketone (PEEK). Besides, a "simvastatin-PLLA film-tobramycin microspheres" delivery system is subsequently fabricated to endow the PEEK implant with osteogenic and antibacterial capabilities. In vitro antibacterial evaluations confirm that the decorated PEEK scaffolds possess excellent resistance against planktonic/adherent bacteria. In vitro cell attachment/proliferation, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) content, alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity, calcium mineral deposition experiments, and real-time PCR analysis all exhibit that the superior proliferation rate and osteo-differentiation potential of MC3T3-E1 pre-osteoblasts are presented on the PEEK samples with dual functional decoration. In the mouse calvarial defect model, the micro-CT and histological results demonstrate that our scaffolds display a remarkable bone forming capability. Generally, the PEEK scaffolds co-endowed with simvastatin and tobramycin microspheres possess great potential in clinics.

Injectable Gel Constructs with Regenerative and Anti-Infective Dual Effects Based on Assembled Chitosan Microspheres

There is increasing demand for biomaterials that both assist with bone regeneration and have anti-infection qualities in clinical applications. To achieve this goal, chitosan microspheres with either positive or negative charges were fabricated and then assembled as a gel for bone healing. The positively charged chitosan microspheres (CSM; ∼35.5 μm) and negatively charged O-carboxymethyl chitosan microspheres (CMCSM; ∼13.5 μm) were loaded, respectively, with bone morphogenetic protein (BMP-2) and berberine (Bbr) via swollen encapsulation and physical adsorption without a significant change in the electric charges. The release kinetics of BMP-2 and Bbr from the microspheres were also studied in vitro. The results showed that the Bbr/CMCSM microsphere group possessed high antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus; the BMP-2/CSM microsphere group also had excellent cytocompatibility and improved osteoinductivity with the assistance of BMP-2. The assembled gel group consisting of Bbr/CMCSM and BMP-2/CSM had a porous structure that allowed biological signal transfer and tissue infiltration and exhibited significantly enhanced bone reconstruction compared with that of the respective microsphere groups, which should result from the osteoconductivity of the porous structure and the osteoinduction of the BMP-2 growth factor. The oppositely charged microspheres and their assembled gel provide a promising prospect for making injectable tissue-engineered constructs with regenerative and anti-infective dual effects for biomedical applications.

Osteoblastic cell response on high-rough titanium coatings by cold spray

Highly rough and porous commercially pure titanium coatings have been directly produced for first time by the cold spray technology, which is a promising technology in front of the vacuum plasma spray for oxygen sensitive materials. The wettability properties as well as the biocompatibility evaluation have been compared to a simply sand blasted Ti6Al4V alloy substrate. Surface topographies were analysed using confocal microscopy. Next, osteoblast morphology (Phalloidin staining), proliferation (MTS assay), and differentiation (alkaline phosphatase activity) were examined along 1, 7 and 14 days of cell culture on the different surfaces. Finally, mineralization by alizarin red staining was quantified at 28 days of cell culture. The contact angle values showed an increased hydrophilic behaviour on the as-sprayed surface with a good correlation to the biological response. A higher cell viability, proliferation and differentiation were obtained for highly rough commercial pure titanium coatings in comparison with sand blasted substrates. Cell morphology was similar in all coatings tested; at 14 days both samples showed extended filopodia. A higher amount of calcium-rich deposits was detected on highly rough surfaces. In summary, in-vitro results showed an increase of biological properties when surface roughness increases.

Surface Characterization and Cell Adhesion of Different Zirconia Treatments: An in vitro Study

AIM

The aim of this study was to characterize the surface of zirconia subjected to different treatments and evaluate its effect on cell adhesion and proliferation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 80 zirconia disks were divided into four groups (n = 20) according to the surface treatments used: group I: as-sintered (AS), no surface treatment applied; group II: abrasion treatment applied using Rocatec (ROC; 3M ESPE) system with silica-coated alumina powder of grit size 110 μm; group III: erbium, chromium:yttrium, scandium, gallium, garnet (Er, Cr:YSGG) laser (LAS; BIOLASE) was used at a frequency of 20 Hz and output power of 3 W; and group IV: specimens were subjected to the selective infiltration etching (SIE) technique. Surface characterization was evaluated for the different groups (roughness, hardness, and morphology), and cell behavior (adhesion and proliferation) was tested (a = 0.05).

RESULTS

The ROC group reported a significant increase in surface roughness (2.201 ± 0.352) and Vickers hardness (1758 ± 16.6) compared with the other surface treatments. The SIE surface-treated group reported a significantly higher number of cells (64.5 ± 2.6 and 53.5 ± 2.2 respectively) compared with the other surface-treated groups.

CONCLUSION

The SIE is a promising surface treatment for zirconia that significantly enhances cell adhesion and osseointegration.

CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE

The SIE treatment of zirconia implants may help in a faster and better osseointegration.

Upregulation of osteogenesis of mesenchymal stem cells with virus-based thin films

A major aim of tissue engineering is to develop biomimetic scaffolding materials that can guide the proliferation, self-renewal and differentiation of multipotent stem cells into specific lineages. Cellular functions can be controlled by the interactions between cells and biomaterials. Therefore, the surface chemistry and topography of support materials play a pivotal role in modulating cell behaviors at many stages of cell growth and development. Due to their highly ordered structure and programmable surface chemistries, which provide unique topography as biomaterials, viral nanoparticles have been utilized as building blocks for targeted cell growth and differentiation. This review article discusses the fabrication of two-dimensional virus-based thin film on substrates and highlights the study of the effect of chemical and physical cues introduced by plant virus nanoparticle thin films on the promotion of osteogenic differentiation of BMSCs.

Laser-modified titanium surfaces enhance the osteogenic differentiation of human mesenchymal stem cells

Background

Titanium surfaces have been modified by various approaches with the aim of improving the stimulation of osseointegration. Laser beam (Yb-YAG) treatment is a controllable and flexible approach to modifying surfaces. It creates a complex surface topography with micro and nano-scaled patterns, and an oxide layer that can improve the osseointegration of implants, increasing their usefulness as bone implant materials.

Methods

Laser beam irradiation at various fluences (132, 210, or 235 J/cm²) was used to treat commercially pure titanium discs to create complex surface topographies. The titanium discs were investigated by scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and measurement of contact angles. The surface generated at a fluence of 235 J/cm² was used in the biological assays. The behavior of mesenchymal stem cells from an umbilical cord vein was evaluated using a 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay, a mineralization assay, and an alkaline phosphatase activity assay and by carrying out a quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction for osteogenic markers. CHO-k1 cells were also exposed to titanium discs in the MTT assay.

Results

The best titanium surface was that produced by laser beam irradiation at 235 J/cm² fluence. Cell proliferation analysis revealed that the CHO-k1 and mesenchymal stem cells behaved differently. The laser-processed titanium surface increased the proliferation of CHO-k1 cells, reduced the proliferation of mesenchymal stem cells, upregulated the expression of the osteogenic markers, and enhanced alkaline phosphatase activity.

Conclusions

The laser-treated titanium surface modulated cellular behavior depending on the cell type, and stimulated osteogenic differentiation. This evidence supports the potential use of laser-processed titanium surfaces as bone implant materials, and their use in regenerative medicine could promote better outcomes.

Electrophoretic deposition of chitosan/gelatin coatings with controlled porous surface topography to enhance initial osteoblast adhesive responses

Electrophoretically deposited (EPD) coatings have often been employed recently for the addition of different new chemical compositions to classic chitosan coatings to improve the biocompatibility and therapeutic potential of coated implants. However, little attention has been paid to enhance the cell response to EPD coatings via integrating the effects of chemical components and surface topography. Here, we fabricated EPD chitosan/gelatin (CS/G) coatings with controlled porous surface topography by controlling bubble generation in the EPD process via changing the gelatin content in solution from 0, 0.01, 0.1, and 1 to 10 mg ml^-1. The pure chitosan coating surface was characterized by homogeneous large pores of 500 μm. After 0.01 mg ml^-1 gelatin was added, 180 μm small pores appeared on the walls of large pores. As the gelatin content increased to 0.1 mg ml^-1, a number of small pores increased noticeably. When the gelatin content reached 1 mg ml^-1, large pores disappeared, and the coating displayed homogeneous small pores. 10 mg ml^-1 gelatin concentration led to coatings consisting of small pores with not integral and continuous structures. The initial osteoblastic responses, including cell adherence progress, spreading area, proliferation rate, and focal adhesion-related gene expression, gradually improved from 0 to 0.01, 0.1, and 1 mg ml^-1 gelatin content, but decreased from 1 to 10 mg ml^-1. All these results indicated that the initial cell responses to coatings reached a peak when it was 1 mg ml^-1 gelatin and they had homogeneous small pores, which might contribute to the synergistic effects of the porous surface structure and components. This work would be beneficial for expanding the potential application of EPD coatings.

Significance of osteogenic surface coatings on implants to enhance osseointegration under osteoporotic-like conditions

PURPOSE

The aim was to assess the significance of osteogenic surface coatings on implants to enhance osseointegration under osteoporotic-like (OP-like) conditions.

METHODS

To address the focused question "Do osteogenic surface coatings on implants enhance osseointegration under OP-like conditions?" PubMed/MEDLINE and Google-Scholar databases were searched from 1995 up to and including February 2014 using various keywords. Unpublished data, letters to the editor, review articles, and articles published in languages other than English were excluded.

RESULTS

Of the 28 studies identified, 11 experimental studies were included. These studies were performed on bilaterally ovariectomized animals. In all studies, implant surface roughness was increased by various osteogenetic surface coatings including alumina, hydroxyapatite, calcium phosphate, and zoledronic acid. Nine studies reported that compared with non-coated surfaces, osteogenic coatings on implant surfaces increases bone volume and bone-to-implant contact (BIC) under OP-like conditions. In 2 studies, there was no difference in BIC around hydroxyapatite-coated implants placed in animals with and without OP-like conditions.

CONCLUSION

Osteogenic coatings on implant surfaces enhanced osseointegration in animals with OP-like conditions. However, additional clinical studies are warranted to assess the role of osteogenic coatings in increasing osseointegration in patients with osteoporosis.

Change in surface roughness by dynamic shape-memory acrylate networks enhances osteoblast differentiation

Microscale surface roughness has been shown to enhance osseointegration of titanium implants through increased osteoblast differentiation while osteoblast proliferation remains greater on smooth titanium. Taking advantage of these phenomena, we developed a shape memory (meth)acrylate copolymer with thermomechanical properties that created a time-dependent dynamic surface change from smooth to rough under in vitro cell culture conditions and evaluated the effect of the shape recovery on osteoblast response. Rough topographies were created using soft lithography techniques to mimic those found on clinically-used Ti surfaces (machined smooth; acid-etched; grit-blasted). The surface roughness was then reduced to smooth via compression and shown to fully recover within 24 h in culture conditions. When grown under static conditions, osteoblast number, alkaline phosphatase specific activity (ALP), and osteoprotegerin (OPG) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) production were unaffected by polymer surface roughness, but osteocalcin (OCN) was increased on the grit-blasted polymer mimic. Under dynamic conditions, DNA was reduced but OCN and OPG were increased on the compressed grit-blasted polymer at 3 days compared to static surfaces. The present study indicates that responses to polymer surface are sensitive to time-dependent changes in topography. The use of a shape memory polymer with dynamic surface roughness may improve osseointegration.

Effect of Surface Modifications of Ti40Zr10Cu38Pd12 Bulk Metallic Glass and Ti-6Al-4V Alloy on Human Osteoblasts In Vitro Biocompatibility

The use of biocompatible materials, including bulk metallic glasses (BMGs), for tissue regeneration and transplantation is increasing. The good mechanical and corrosion properties of Ti₄₀Zr₁₀Cu₃₈Pd₁₂ BMG and its previously described biocompatibility makes it a potential candidate for medical applications. However, it is known that surface properties like topography might play an important role in regulating cell adhesion, proliferation and differentiation. Thus, in the present study, Ti₄₀Zr₁₀Cu₃₈Pd₁₂ BMG and Ti6-Al-4V alloy were surface-modified electrochemically (nanomesh) or physically (microscratched) to investigate the effect of material topography on human osteoblasts cells (Saos-2) adhesion, proliferation and differentiation. For comparative purposes, the effect of mirror-like polished surfaces was also studied. Electrochemical treatments led to a highly interconnected hierarchical porous structure rich in oxides, which have been described to improve corrosion resistance, whereas microscratched surfaces showed a groove pattern with parallel trenches. Cell viability was higher than 96% for the three topographies tested and for both alloy compositions. In all cases, cells were able to adhere, proliferate and differentiate on the alloys, hence indicating that surface topography plays a minor role on these processes, although a clear cell orientation was observed on microscratched surfaces. Overall, our results provide further evidence that Ti₄₀Zr₁₀Cu₃₈Pd₁₂ BMG is an excellent candidate, in the present two topographies, for bone repair purposes.

Virus Nanoparticles Mediated Osteogenic Differentiation of Bone Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells

There are few methodologies that allow manipulating a biomaterial surface at nanometer scale, which controllably influence different cellular functions. In this study, virus nanoparticles with different structural features are selected to prepare 2D substrates with defined nanoscale topographies and the cellular responses are investigated. It is demonstrated that the viral nanoparticle based substrates could accelerate and enhance osteogenesis of bone derived mesenchymal stem cells as indicated by the upregulation of osteogenic markers, including bone morphogenetic protein-2, osteocalcin, and osteopontin, at both gene and protein expression levels. Moreover, alkaline phosphatase activity and calcium mineralization, both indicators for a -successful bone formation, are also increased in cells grown on these nanoscale possessed substrates. These discoveries and developments present a new paradigm for nanoscale engineering of a biomaterial surface.

Osteoblast differentiation is enhanced by a nano-to-micro hybrid titanium surface created by Yb:YAG laser irradiation

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to analyze the capacity of a new modified laser surface to stimulate calvarial osteoblasts isolated from neonatal mouse bones to differentiate and form mineralized nodules.

METHODS

Titanium discs were subjectezd or not to laser irradiation according to specific parameters and characterized. Osteoblasts isolated from neonatal mouse calvaria were cultured over the discs, and the capacity of these cells to proliferate (MTT assay), form mineralized nodules (Alizarin red assay), and enhance alkaline phosphatase activity (ALPase activity) was analyzed. Real-time PCR was used for quantification of gene expression.

RESULTS

Laser-irradiated titanium discs (L) presented a rough nano-to-micrometric oxidized surface contrasting with the smooth pattern on polished discs (P). The Ra on the micrometric level increased from 0.32 ± 0.01 μm on P surfaces to 10.57 ± 0.39 μm on L surfaces. When compared with P, L promoted changes in osteoblast morphology, increased mineralized nodule formation in osteoblasts cultured on the surfaces for 14 days, and enhanced ALPase activity at days 7 and 14. Transcription factors triggering osteoblast differentiation (Runx2 and Sp7) and genes encoding the bone extracellular matrix proteins collagen type-1 (Col1a1), osteopontin (Spp1), and osteocalcin (Bglap) were upregulated in cells on L surfaces compared with those on P surfaces at days 1-14.

CONCLUSION

Laser treatment of titanium surfaces created a rough surface that stimulated osteoblast differentiation.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Laser treatment of titanium generates a reproducible and efficient surface triggering osteoblast differentiation that can be of importance for osteointegration.

Effect of Increasing Doses of γ-Radiation on Bone Marrow Stromal Cells Grown on Smooth and Rough Titanium Surfaces

Radiation therapy for oral and maxillofacial tumors could damage bone marrow stromal cells (BMSCs) in jaw, which caused dental implant failure. However, how radiation affects BMSCs on SLA (sandblasted with large-grits, acid-etched) surfaces is still unknown. The aim of this study was to investigate effect of different dose of γ-radiation on BMSCs on SLA and PT (polished titanium) surfaces. Rat BMSCs were radiated with 2, 4, and 8 Gy γ-radiation and then seeded on both surfaces. Cell adhesion, spreading, and proliferation were tested. The osteogenesis and the adipogenesis ability were examined by Alizarin-Red and Oil-Red staining, respectively. Real-time PCR was performed to detect osteogenic (osteocalcin, OCN; runt-related transcription factor 2, Runx2) and adipogenic (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma, PPARγ) gene expression at days 7 and 14 postirradiation. Results showed that γ-radiation reduced cell proliferation, adhesion, spreading, and osteogenic differentiation. 2 Gy radiation promoted adipogenic differentiation, but it was significantly decreased when dosage reached 4 Gy. In conclusion, results suggest that γ-radiation influenced BMSCs behaviors in a dosage-dependent manner except adipogenic differentiation, low dose promoted it, and high dose inhibited it. This effect was influenced by surface characteristics, which may explain the different failure rate of various implants in patients after radiation.

Assessing the hierarchical structure of titanium implant surfaces

The physical texture of implant surfaces are known to be one important factor in creating a stable bone-implant interface. Simple roughness parameters (for e.g., Sa or Sz) are not entirely adequate when characterizing surfaces possessing hierarchical structure (macro, micro, and nano scales). The aim of this study was to develop an analytical approach to quantify hierarchical surface structure of implant surfaces possessing nearly identical simple roughness. Titanium alloys with macro/micro texture (MM) and macro/micro/nano texture (MMN) were chosen as model surfaces to be evaluated. There was no statistical difference (p > 0.05) in either Sa (13.56 vs. 13.43 µm) or Sz (91.74 vs. 92.39 µm) for the MM and MMN surfaces, respectively. However, when advanced filtering algorithms were applied to these datasets, a statistical difference in roughness was found between MM (Sa = 0.54 µm) and MMN (Sa = 1.06 µm; p < 0.05). Additionally, a method was developed to specifically quantify the density of surface features appearing similar in geometry to natural osteoclastic pits. This analysis revealed a significantly greater numbers of these features (i.e., valleys) on the MMN surface as compared to the MM surface. Finally, atomic force microscopy showed a rougher nano-texture on the MMN surface compared with the MM surface (p < 0.05). The results support recent published studies that show a combination of appropriate micron and nano surface results in a more robust cellular response and increased osteoblast differentiation. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Biomed Mater Res Part B: Appl Biomater, 104B: 1083-1090, 2016.

Enhanced differentiation of human osteoblasts on Ti surfaces pre-treated with human whole blood

Early and effective integration of a metal implant into bone tissue is of crucial importance for its long-term stability. While different material properties including surface roughness and wettability but also initial blood-implant surface interaction are known to influence this osseointegration, implications of the latter process are still poorly understood. In this study, early interaction between blood and the implant surface and how this affects the mechanism of osseointegration were investigated. For this, blood coagulation on a micro-roughened hydrophobic titanium (Ti) surface (SLA-H(phob)) and on a hydrophilic micro-roughened Ti surface with nanostructures (SLActive-H(phil)NS), as well as the effects of whole human blood pre-incubation of these two surfaces on the differentiation potential of primary human bone cells (HBC) was assessed. Interestingly, pre-incubation with blood resulted in a dense fibrin network over the entire surface on SLActive-H(phil)NS but only in single patches of fibrin and small isolated fibre complexes on SLA-H(phob). On SLActive-H(phil)NS, the number of HBCs attaching to the fibrin network was greatly increased and the cells displayed enhanced cell contact to the fibrin network. Notably, HBCs displayed increased expression of the osteogenic marker proteins alkaline phosphatase and collagen-I when cultivated on both surfaces upon blood pre-incubation. Additionally, blood pre-treatment promoted an earlier and enhanced mineralization of HBCs cultivated on SLActive-H(phil)NS compared to SLA-H(phob). The results presented in this study therefore suggest that blood pre-incubation of implant surfaces mimics a more physiological situation, eventually providing a more predictive in vitro model for the evaluation of novel bone implant surfaces.

Regulation of stem cell fate by nanomaterial substrates

Stem cells are increasingly studied because of their potential to underpin a range of novel therapies, including regenerative strategies, cell type-specific therapy and tissue repair, among others. Bionanomaterials can mimic the stem cell environment and modulate stem cell differentiation and proliferation. New advances in these fields are presented in this review. This work highlights the importance of topography and elasticity of the nano-/micro-environment, or niche, for the initiation and induction of stem cell differentiation and proliferation.

Collagen self-assembly on orthopedic magnesium biomaterials surface and subsequent bone cell attachment

Magnesium (Mg) biomaterials are a new generation of biodegradable materials and have promising potential for orthopedic applications. After implantation in bone tissues, these materials will directly interact with extracellular matrix (ECM) biomolecules and bone cells. Type I collagen, the major component of bone ECM, forms the architecture scaffold that provides physical support for bone cell attachment. However, it is still unknown how Mg substrate affects collagen assembly on top of it as well as subsequent cell attachment and growth. Here, we studied the effects of collagen monomer concentration, pH, assembly time, and surface roughness of two Mg materials (pure Mg and AZ31) on collagen fibril formation. Results showed that formation of fibrils would not initiate until the monomer concentration reached a certain level depending on the type of Mg material. The thickness of collagen fibril increased with the increase of assembly time. The structures of collagen fibrils formed on semi-rough surfaces of Mg materials have a high similarity to that of native bone collagen. Next, cell attachment and growth after collagen assembly were examined. Materials with rough surface showed higher collagen adsorption but compromised bone cell attachment. Interestingly, surface roughness and collagen structure did not affect cell growth on AZ31 for up to a week. Findings from this work provide some insightful information on Mg-tissue interaction at the interface and guidance for future surface modifications of Mg biomaterials.

A bone substitute with high affinity for vitamin D-binding protein--relationship with niche of osteoclasts

The biological activity of osteoblasts and osteoclasts is regulated not only by hormones but also by local growth factors, which are expressed in neighbouring cells or included in bone matrix. Previously, we developed hydroxyapatite (HA) composed of rod-shaped particles using applied hydrothermal methods (HHA), and it revealed mild biodegradability and potent osteoclast homing activity. Here, we compared serum proteins adsorbed to HHA with those adsorbed to conventional HA composed of globular-shaped particles (CHA). The two ceramics adsorbed serum albumin and γ-globulin to similar extents, but affinity for γ-globulin was much greater than that to serum albumin. The chemotactic activity for macrophages of serum proteins adsorbed to HHA was significantly higher than that of serum proteins adsorbed to CHA. Quantitative proteomic analysis of adsorbed serum proteins revealed preferential binding of vitamin D-binding protein (DBP) and complements C3 and C4B with HHA. When implanted with the femur of 8-week-old rats, HHA contained significantly larger amount of DBP than CHA. The biological activity of DBP was analysed and it was found that the chemotactic activity for macrophages was weak. However, DBP-macrophage activating factor, which is generated by the digestion of sugar chains of DBP, stimulated osteoclastogenesis. These results confirm that the microstructure of hydroxyapatite largely affects the affinity for serum proteins, and suggest that DBP preferentially adsorbed to HA composed of rod-shaped particles influences its potent osteoclast homing activity and local bone metabolism.

Effects of titanium surface anodization with CaP incorporation on human osteoblastic response

In this study we investigated whether anodization with calcium phosphate (CaP) incorporation (Vulcano®) enhances growth factors' secretion, osteoblast-specific gene expression, and cell viability, when compared to acid etched surfaces (Porous®) and machined surfaces (Screw®) after 3 and 7days. Results showed significant cell viability for Porous and Vulcano at day 7, when compared with Screw (p=0.005). At the same time point, significant differences regarding runt-related transcription factor 2 (Runx2), alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and bone sialoprotein (BSP) expression were found for all surfaces (p<0.05), but with greater fold induction for Porous and Vulcano. The secretion of transforming growth factor β1 (TGF-β1) and bone morphogenetic protein 2 (BMP-2) was not significantly affected by surface treatment in any experimental time (p>0.05). Although no significant correlation was found for growth factors' secretion and Runx2 expression, a significant positive correlation between this gene and ALP/BSP expression showed that their strong association is independent on the type of surface. The incorporation of CaP affected the biological parameters evaluated similar to surfaces just acid etched. The results presented here support the observations that roughness also may play an important role in determining cell response.

The effect of surface microgrooves and anodic oxidation on the surface characteristics of titanium and the osteogenic activity of human periodontal ligament cells

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of titanium (Ti) surface microgrooves and anodic oxidation on the surface characteristics of titanium and the osteogenic activity of human periodontal ligament cells (PLCs) cultured on theses surfaces.

DESIGN

Mechanically ground Ti was used as the control substratum (NE0). Truncated V-shaped microgrooves, 60μm-wide and 10μm-deep in cross-sections, were created on the Ti substrata by photolithography (NE60/10). Anodically oxidized Ti (NE0AO) and anodically oxidized microgrooved Ti (NE60/10AO) were also prepared. Scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) were performed for surface characterization. Cell proliferation assay, osteoblast differentiation assay, and quantitative real-time PCR analysis were performed to compare the osteogenic activity of PLCs on NE0, NE60/10, NEAO, and NE60/10AO.

RESULTS

A decrease in the microgroove-width of NE60/10AO compared to NE60/10 due to Ti oxide layer generation by anodic oxidation was detected with XRD and XPS. Cell proliferation, osteoblast differentiation, and osteo-related gene expression were enhanced on the NE60/10AO substrata compared with NE0, NE60/10, and NE0AO.

CONCLUSIONS

The combination of Ti surface microgrooves and subsequent anodic oxidation treatment synergistically upregulated osteo-related gene expression, despite showing limited ability to increase cell proliferation and osteoblast differentiation levels in PLCs.

Stimulation of Osteogenesis in Bone Defects Implanted with Biodegradable Hydroxyapatite Composed of Rod-Shaped Particles under Mechanical Unloading

The aim of this study was to evaluate the influence of mechanical unloading on the repair of bone defects with implantation of biodegradable bone substitutes. Spherical granules of biodegradable hydroxyapatite composed of rod-shaped particles (RHA) or beta-tricalcium phosphate composed of rod-shaped particles (RTCP) were implanted into a bone defect created in the distal end of the right femur of 8-week-old Wistar rats. Two, 6, 10, and 22 weeks after implantation, part of the sciatic nerve in the thigh was resected and exposed to mechanical unloading for 2 weeks. Then, 4, 8, 12 and 24 weeks after implantation, repair of the bone defect was analyzed. As a control, the bone defect without implantation of ceramic granules was also analyzed. Both RHA and RTCP tended to be reduced, but the reduction was not obvious during the experimental period. At 12 and 24 weeks after implantation, the amount of newly formed bone in the animal implanted with RHA was significantly greater than that at 4 weeks after implantation, but that in the animal implanted with RTCP or without implantation was not significantly different. The number of osteoclasts in the region implanted with RHA was significantly larger than that of the region implanted with RTCP or without implantation at 12 and 24 weeks. The activities of alkaline phosphatase in osteoblasts and tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase in osteoclasts were remarkably increased in the bone defects with implantation compared with those in the bone defects without implantation. These results suggested that RHA stimulated osteogenesis and osteoclastogenesis even after 2 weeks of mechanical unloading, and that RHA could be expected to improve the repair of bone defects in patients under the condition of skeletal unloading.

Impact of plasma chemistry versus titanium surface topography on osteoblast orientation

Topographical and chemical modifications of biomaterial surfaces both influence tissue physiology, but unfortunately little knowledge exists as to their combined effect. There are many indications that rough surfaces positively influence osteoblast behavior. Having determined previously that a positively charged, smooth titanium surface boosts osteoblast adhesion, we wanted to investigate the combined effects of topography and chemistry and elucidate which of these properties is dominant. Polished, machined and corundum-blasted titanium of increasing microroughness was additionally coated with plasma-polymerized allylamine (PPAAm). Collagen I was then immobilized using polyethylene glycol diacid and glutar dialdehyde. On all PPAAm-modified surfaces (i) adhesion of human MG-63 osteoblastic cells increased significantly in combination with roughness, (ii) cells resemble the underlying structure and melt with the surface, and (iii) cells overcome the restrictions of a grooved surface and spread out over a large area as indicated by actin staining. Interestingly, the cellular effects of the plasma-chemical surface modification are predominant over surface topography, especially in the initial phase. Collagen I, although it is the gold standard, does not improve surface adhesion features comparably.

Differential responses of osteoblast lineage cells to nanotopographically-modified, microroughened titanium-aluminum-vanadium alloy surfaces

Surface structural modifications at the micrometer and nanometer scales have driven improved success rates of dental and orthopaedic implants by mimicking the hierarchical structure of bone. However, how initial osteoblast-lineage cells populating an implant surface respond to different hierarchical surface topographical cues remains to be elucidated, with bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) or immature osteoblasts as possible initial colonizers. Here we show that in the absence of any exogenous soluble factors, osteoblastic maturation of primary human osteoblasts (HOBs) but not osteoblastic differentiation of MSCs is strongly influenced by nanostructures superimposed onto a microrough Ti6Al4V (TiAlV) alloy. The sensitivity of osteoblasts to both surface microroughness and nanostructures led to a synergistic effect on maturation and local factor production. Osteoblastic differentiation of MSCs was sensitive to TiAlV surface microroughness with respect to production of differentiation markers, but no further enhancement was found when cultured on micro/nanostructured surfaces. Superposition of nanostructures to microroughened surfaces affected final MSC numbers and enhanced production of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) but the magnitude of the response was lower than for HOB cultures. Our results suggest that the differentiation state of osteoblast-lineage cells determines the recognition of surface nanostructures and subsequent cell response, which has implications for clinical evaluation of new implant surface nanomodifications.

Effects of irradiation on osteoblast-like cells on different titanium surfaces in vitro

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of irradiation on adhesion ability, proliferation, and differentiation of MC3T3-E1 cells on microarc oxidation (MAO) titanium surfaces and polished titanium (PT) surfaces. MC3T3-E1 cells were exposed to a single dose at 2, 4, 6, 8, or 10 Gy using a (60) Co source, with tissue culture polystyrene plates chosen as controls. On all surfaces, irradiation resulted in a dose-dependent decrease in cellular proliferation. At 4 Gy dose, the cell proliferation of cells decreased by 17.8% on MAO and 18.6% on PT surfaces, respectively, compared with nonirradiated controls. Cells exposed to 8 Gy dose showed significant inhibition in collagen secretion and osteogenesis-related genes expression (OSX, COL-Iα1, and OCN). In contrast, irradiation increased cell adhesion to three surfaces dose dependently. It was also demonstrated that cells on MAO surface showed higher adhesion and collagen secretion than on PT surface at different radiation doses. This study revealed the effects of irradiation on osteoblasts in vitro on two titanium surfaces. MAO surface could be used in dental implants in irradiated bone due to enhanced adhesion ability and collagen secretion in osteoblasts.

Tubular perfusion system culture of human mesenchymal stem cells on poly-L-lactic acid scaffolds produced using a supercritical carbon dioxide-assisted process

In vitro human mesenchymal stem cell (hMSC) proliferation and differentiation is dependent on scaffold design parameters and specific culture conditions. In this study, we investigate how scaffold microstructure influences hMSC behavior in a perfusion bioreactor system. Poly-L-lactic acid (PLLA) scaffolds are fabricated using supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO(2)) gel drying. This production method results in scaffolds fabricated with nanostructure. To introduce a microporous structure, porogen leaching was used in addition to this technique to produce scaffolds of average pore size of 100, 250, and 500 μm. These scaffolds were then cultured in static culture in well plates or dynamic culture in the tubular perfusion system (TPS) bioreactor. Results indicated that hMSCs were able to attach and maintain viability on all scaffolds with higher proliferation in the 250 μm and 500 μm pore sizes of bioreactor cultured scaffolds and 100 μm pore size of statically cultured scaffolds. Osteoblastic differentiation was enhanced in TPS culture as compared to static culture with the highest alkaline phosphatase expression observed in the 250 μm pore size group. Bone morphogenetic protein-2 was also analyzed and expression levels were highest in the 250 μm and 500 μm pore size bioreactor cultured samples. These results demonstrate cellular response to pore size as well as the ability of dynamic culture to enhance these effects.

The significance of differential expression of genes and proteins in human primary cells caused by microgrooved biomaterial substrata

We demonstrate that etched microgrooves, with truncated V-shape in cross-section and subsequent acid etching, on titanium substrata alter the expression of various genes and proteins in human primary cells. Etched microgrooves with 30 or 60 μm width and 10 μm depth promoted human gingival fibroblast proliferation and significantly enhanced the osteoblast differentiation of human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells and human periodontal ligament cells by inducing differential expression of various genes involved in cell adhesion, migration, proliferation, mitosis, cytoskeletal reorganization, translation initiation, vesicular trafficking, proton transportation, transforming growth factor-β signaling, mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling, simvastatin's anabolic effect on bone, inhibitory guanine nucleotide binding protein (G protein)'s action, sumoylation pathway, survival/apoptosis, mitochondrial distribution, type I collagen production, osteoblast differentiation, and bone remodeling that were verified by the differential display PCR and quantitative real-time PCR. The most influential genes on the enhancement of fibroblast proliferation or osteoblast differentiation were determined by multiple regression analysis, and the expression of relevant proteins was confirmed by western blotting and protein quantitation.

The effects of titanium nitride-coating on the topographic and biological features of TPS implant surfaces

OBJECTIVES

Titanium nitride (TiN) coating has been proposed as an adjunctive surface treatment aimed to increase the physico-mechanical and aesthetic properties of dental implants. In this study we investigated the surface characteristics of TiN-coated titanium plasma sprayed (TiN-TPS) and uncoated titanium plasma sprayed (TPS) surfaces and their biological features towards both primary human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BM-MSC) and bacterial cultures.

METHODS

15 mm×1 mm TPS and TiN-TPS disks (P.H.I. s.r.l., San Vittore Olona, Milano, Italy) were topographically analysed by confocal optical profilometry. Primary human BM-MSC were obtained from healthy donors, isolated and expanded. Cells were seeded on the titanium disks and cell adhesion, proliferation, protein synthesis and osteoblastic differentiation in terms of alkaline phosphatase activity, osteocalcin synthesis and extracellular mineralization, were evaluated. Furthermore, adhesion and proliferation of Streptococcus pyogenes and Streptococcus sanguinis on both surfaces were also analysed.

RESULTS

TiN-TPS disks showed a decreased roughness (about 50%, p < 0.05) and a decreased bacterial adhesion and proliferation compared to TPS ones. No difference (p > 0.05) in terms of BM-MSC adhesion, proliferation and osteoblastic differentiation between TPS and TiN-TPS surfaces was found.

CONCLUSIONS

TiN coating showed to modify the topographical characteristics of TPS titanium surfaces and to significantly reduce bacterial adhesion and proliferation, although maintaining their biological affinity towards bone cell precursors.