Kinetics theories to understand the mechanism of aggregation of a protein and to design strategies for its inhibition

Improving the stability of insulin through effective chemical modifications: A Comprehensive review

Insulin, an essential peptide hormone, conjointly regulates blood glucose levels by its receptor and it is used as vital drug to treat diabetes. This therapeutic hormone may undergo different chemical modifications during industrial processes, pharmaceutical formulation, and through its endogenous storage in the pancreatic β-cells. Insulin is highly sensitive to environmental stresses and readily undergoes structural changes, being also able to unfold and aggregate in physiological conditions. Even; small changes altering the structural integrity of insulin may have significant impacts on its biological efficacy to its physiological and pharmacological activities. Insulin analogs have been engineered to achieve modified properties, such as improved stability, solubility, and pharmacokinetics, while preserving the molecular pharmacology of insulin. The casually or purposively strategies of chemical modifications of insulin occurred to improve its therapeutic and pharmaceutical properties. Knowing the effects of chemical modification, formation of aggregates, and nanoparticles on protein can be a new look at the production of protein analogues drugs and its application in living system. The project focused on effects of chemical modifications and nanoparticles on the structure, stability, aggregation and their results in effective drug delivery system, biological activity, and pharmacological properties of insulin. The future challenge in biotechnology and pharmacokinetic arises from the complexity of biopharmaceuticals, which are often molecular structures that require formulation and delivery strategies to ensure their efficacy and safety.

Stability of Protein Pharmaceuticals: Recent Advances

There have been significant advances in the formulation and stabilization of proteins in the liquid state over the past years since our previous review. Our mechanistic understanding of protein-excipient interactions has increased, allowing one to develop formulations in a more rational fashion. The field has moved towards more complex and challenging formulations, such as high concentration formulations to allow for subcutaneous administration and co-formulation. While much of the published work has focused on mAbs, the principles appear to apply to any therapeutic protein, although mAbs clearly have some distinctive features. In this review, we first discuss chemical degradation reactions. This is followed by a section on physical instability issues. Then, more specific topics are addressed: instability induced by interactions with interfaces, predictive methods for physical stability and interplay between chemical and physical instability. The final parts are devoted to discussions how all the above impacts (co-)formulation strategies, in particular for high protein concentration solutions.'

Inhibition of fibril formation by polyphenols: molecular mechanisms, challenges, and prospective solutions

Fibril formation is a key feature in neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and systemic amyloidosis. Polyphenols, found in plant-based foods, show promise in inhibiting fibril formation and disrupting disease progression. The ability of polyphenols to break the amyloid fibrils of many disease-linked proteins has been tested in numerous studies. Polyphenols have their distinctive mechanism of action. They behave differently on various events in the aggregation pathway. Their action also differs for different proteins. Some polyphenols only inhibit the formation of fibrils whereas others break the preformed fibrils. Some break the fibrils into smaller species, and some change them to other morphologies. This article delves into the intricate molecular mechanisms underlying the inhibitory effects of polyphenols on fibrillogenesis, shedding light on their interactions with amyloidogenic proteins and the disruption of fibril assembly pathways. However, addressing the challenges associated with solubility, stability, and bioavailability of polyphenols is crucial. The current strategies involve nanotechnology to improve the solubility and bioavailability, thus showing the potential to enhance the efficacy of polyphenols as therapeutics. Advancements in structural biology, computational modeling, and biophysics have provided insights into polyphenol-fibril interactions, offering hope for novel therapies for neurodegenerative diseases and amyloidosis.

Sulfation of hyaluronic acid reconfigures the mechanistic pathway of bone morphogenetic protein-2 aggregation

Bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2) is a critical growth factor of bone extracellular matrix (ECM), pivotal for osteogenesis. Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), another vital ECM biomolecules, interact with growth factors, affecting signal transduction. Our study primarily focused on hyaluronic acid (HA), a prevalent GAG, and its sulfated derivative (SHA). We explored their impact on BMP-2's conformation, aggregation, and mechanistic pathways of aggregation using diverse optical and rheological methods. In the presence of HA and SHA, the secondary structure of BMP-2 underwent a structured transformation, characterized by a substantial increase in beta sheet content, and a detrimental alteration, manifesting as a shift towards unstructured content, respectively. Although both HA and SHA induced BMP-2 aggregation, their mechanisms differed. SHA led to rapid amorphous aggregates, while HA promoted amyloid fibrils with a lag phase and sigmoidal kinetics. Aggregate size and shape varied; HA produced larger structures, SHA smaller. Each aggregation type followed distinct pathways influenced by viscosity and excluded volume. Higher viscosity, low diffusivity of protein and higher excluded volume In the presence of HA promotes fibrillation having size in micrometer range. Low viscosity, high diffusivity of protein and lesser excluded volume leads to amorphous aggregate of size in nanometer range.

Each big journey starts with a first step: Importance of oligomerization

Protein oligomers, widely found in nature, have significant physiological and pathological functions. They are classified into three groups based on their function and toxicity. Significant advancements are being achieved in the development of functional oligomers, with a focus on various applications and their engineering. The antimicrobial peptides oligomers play roles in death of bacterial and cancer cells. The predominant pathogenic species in neurodegenerative disorders, as shown by recent results, are amyloid oligomers, which are the main subject of this chapter. They are generated throughout the aggregation process, serving as both intermediates in the subsequent aggregation pathways and ultimate products. Some of them may possess potent cytotoxic properties and through diverse mechanisms cause cellular impairment, and ultimately, the death of cells and disease progression. Information regarding their structure, formation mechanism, and toxicity is limited due to their inherent instability and structural variability. This chapter aims to provide a concise overview of the current knowledge regarding amyloid oligomers.

Variance and higher moments in the sigmoidal self-assembly of branched fibrils

Self-assembly of functional branched filaments, such as actin filaments and microtubules, or dysfunctional ones, such as amyloid fibrils, plays important roles in many biological processes. Here, based on the master equation approach, we study the kinetics of the formation of the branched fibrils. In our model, a branched fibril has one mother branch and several daughter branches. A daughter branch grows from the side of a pre-existing mother branch or daughter branch. In our model, we consider five basic processes for the self-assembly of the branched filaments, namely, the nucleation, the dissociation of the primary nucleus of fibrils, the elongation, the fragmentation, and the branching. The elongation of a mother branch from two ends and the elongation of a daughter branch from two ends can, in principle, occur with four different rate constants associated with the corresponding tips. This leads to a pronounced impact of the directionality of growth on the kinetics of the self-assembly. Here, we have unified and generalized our four previously presented models of branched fibrillogenesis in a single model. We have obtained a system of non-linear ordinary differential equations that give the time evolution of the polymer numbers and the mass concentrations along with the higher moments as observable quantities.

Structural, kinetic, and thermodynamic aspects of insulin aggregation

Given the significance of protein aggregation in proteinopathies and the development of therapeutic protein pharmaceuticals, revamped interest in assessing and modelling the aggregation kinetics has been observed. Quantitative analysis of aggregation includes data of gradual monomeric depletion followed by the formation of subvisible particles. Kinetic and thermodynamic studies are essential to gain key insights into the aggregation process. Despite being the medical marvel in the world of diabetes, insulin suffers from the challenge of aggregation. Physicochemical stresses are experienced by insulin during industrial formulation, storage, delivery, and transport, considerably impacting product quality, efficacy, and effectiveness. The present review briefly describes the pathways, mathematical kinetic models, and thermodynamics of protein misfolding and aggregation. With a specific focus on insulin, further discussions include the structural heterogeneity and modifications of the intermediates incurred during insulin fibrillation. Finally, different model equations to fit the kinetic data of insulin fibrillation are discussed. We believe that this review will shed light on the conditions that induce structural changes in insulin during the lag phase of fibrillation and will motivate scientists to devise strategies to block the initialization of the aggregation cascade. Subsequent abrogation of insulin fibrillation during bioprocessing will ensure stable and globally accessible insulin for efficient management of diabetes.

Extracellular interplay of amyloid fibrils and neural cells

Some neurological disorders such e.g. as Alzheimer disease are accompanied by the appearance of amyloid fibrils inside and outside cells. Herein, I present a generic coarse-grained kinetic mean-field model describing at the extracellular level the interplay of fibrils and cells. It includes the formation and degradation of fibrils, activation of healthy cells with respect to the fabrication of fibrils, and death of activated cells. The corresponding analysis indicates that the disease development can occur in two qualitatively different regimes. The first one is controlled primarily by the intrinsic factors resulting in slow increase of fibril production inside cells. The second one implies faster self-promoted growth of the fibril population by analogy with explosion. This prediction reported as a hypothesis is of interest for conceptual understanding of the neurological disorders.

Mechanism of the interaction of toxic SOD1 fibrils with two potent polyphenols: curcumin and quercetin

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a debilitating neurodegenerative disease commonly caused due to the aggregation of superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1) protein. Finding inhibitors of SOD1 aggregation is of prime concern, but understanding the mechanistic action of inhibitors is equally important. Recent experiments found that two polyphenols, curcumin, and quercetin, have the ability to inhibit SOD1 aggregation. Quercetin was experimentally proven to break pre-formed fibrils into shorter segments, while curcumin did not significantly affect the pre-formed species. Here, we delve deeper into understanding the mechanism of action of quercetin and curcumin on pre-formed octameric fibrils of SOD1 (28PVKVWGSIKGL38: chains A-H) with the help of molecular dynamics (MD) simulations of a fibril docked polyphenol complex. Our results suggest that quercetin shows π-π stacking interaction with one of the key residues for toxic amyloid formation, Trp 32 of chains D, E, and F, and breaks the peptide chains G, and H from the rest of the fibril. On the other hand, curcumin binds to the hydrophobic amino acids of almost all the chains B-H and stabilizes the fibril rather than destabilizing it. Binding free energy calculations using MM/PBSA showed that curcumin binds more strongly to the SOD1 fibril due to greater van der Waals interactions compared to quercetin. These findings provide insights for the development of potential ALS treatments.

Naringenin-Functionalized Gold Nanoparticles and Their Role in α-Synuclein Stabilization

Misfolding and self-assembly of several intrinsically disordered proteins into ordered β-sheet-rich amyloid aggregates emerged as hallmarks of several neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. Here we show how the naringenin-embedded nanostructure effectively retards aggregation and fibril formation of α-synuclein, which is strongly associated with the pathology of Parkinson's-like diseases. Naringenin is a polyphenolic compound from a plant source, and in our current investigation, we reported the one-pot synthesis of naringenin-coated spherical and monophasic gold nanoparticles (NAR-AuNPs) under optimized conditions. The average hydrodynamic diameter of the produced nanoparticle was ∼24 nm and showed a distinct absorption band at 533 nm. The zeta potential of the nanocomposite was ∼-22 mV and indicated the presence of naringenin on the surface of nanoparticles. Core-level XPS spectrum analysis showed prominent peaks at 84.02 and 87.68 eV, suggesting the zero oxidation state of metal in the nanostructure. Additionally, the peaks at 86.14 and 89.76 eV were due to the Au-O bond, induced by the hydroxyl groups of the naringenin molecule. The FT-IR analysis further confirmed strong interactions of the molecule with the gold nanosurface via the phenolic oxygen group. The composite surface was found to interact with monomeric α-synuclein and caused a red shift in the nanoparticle absorption band by ∼5 nm. The binding affinity of the composite nanostructure toward α-synuclein was in the micromolar range (K_a∼ 5.02 × 10⁶ M^-1) and may produce a protein corona over the gold nanosurface. A circular dichroism study showed that the nanocomposite can arrest the conformational fluctuation of the protein and hindered its transformation into a compact cross-β-sheet conformation, a prerequisite for amyloid fibril formation. Furthermore, it was found that naringenin and its nanocomplex did not perturb the viability of neuronal cells. It thus appeared that engineering of the nanosurface with naringenin could be an alternative strategy in developing treatment approaches for Parkinson's and other diseases linked to protein conformation.

Fluorescence labeling methods influence the aggregation process of α-syn in vitro differently

In a previous study, the coexistence of different aggregation pathways of insulin and β-amyloid (Aβ) peptides was demonstrated by correlative stimulated emission depletion (STED) microscopy and atomic force microscopy (AFM). This had been explained by suboptimal proteins labeling strategies that generate heterogeneous populations of aggregating species. However, because of the limited number of proteins considered, the failure of the fluorescent labeling that occurs in a large portion of the aggregating fibrils observed for insulin and Aβ peptides, could not be considered a general phenomenon valid for all molecular systems. Here, we investigated the aggregation process of α-synuclein (α-syn), an amyloidogenic peptide involved in Parkinson's disease, which is significantly larger (MW ∼14 kDa) than insulin and Aβ, previously investigated. The results showed that an unspecific labeling procedure, such as that previously adopted for shorter proteins, reproduced the coexistence of labeled/unlabeled fibers. Therefore, a site-specific labeling method was developed to target a domain of the peptide scarcely involved in the aggregation process. Correlative STED-AFM illustrated that all fibrillar aggregates derived from the aggregation of α-syn at the dye-to-protein ratio of 1 : 22 were fluorescent. These results, demonstrated here for the specific case of α-syn, highlight that the labeling artifacts can be avoided by careful designing the labeling strategy for the molecular system under investigation. The use of a label-free correlative microscopy technique would play a crucial role in the control of the setting of these conditions.

A computational strategy for therapeutic development against superoxide dismutase (SOD1) amyloid formation: effect of polyphenols on the various events in the aggregation pathway

Pathology of superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1) aggregation is linked to a neurodegenerative disease known as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Without suitable post-translational modifications (PTMs), the protein structure tends to become aggregation-prone. Understanding the role of PTMs and targeting the aggregation-prone SOD1 with small molecules can be used to design a strategy to inhibit its aggregation. Microsecond long molecular dynamics (MD) simulations followed by free energy surface (FES) analyses show that the loss of structure in the apo monomer happens locally and stepwise. Removing the disulfide bond from apoprotein leads to further instability in the zinc-binding loop, giving rise to non-native protein conformations. Further, it was found that these non-native conformations have a higher propensity to form a non-native dimer. We chose three structurally similar polyphenols based on their binding energies and investigated their impact on SOD1 aggregation kinetics. MD simulations of apo-SOD1^SH/corkscrew fibril-polyphenol complexes were also carried out. The effect of polyphenols was seen on fibril elongation as well. Based on the experiments and MD simulation results, it can be inferred that the choice of inhibitors is influenced not only by the binding energy but also by dimer interface stabilization, the proclivity to form non-native dimers, the propensity to break fibrils, and the propensity to decrease the rate of elongation. The polyphenols with 3' and 4' hydroxyl groups are better inhibitors of SOD1 aggregation.

In Vitro Interaction of a C-Terminal Fragment of TDP-43 Protein with Human Serum Albumin Modulates Its Aggregation

An increased level of naturally occurring anti-TDP-43 antibodies was observed in the serum and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis patients. Human serum albumin (HSA), the most abundant protein in blood plasma and CSF, is found to interact with pathological proteins like Aβ and α-synuclein. Therefore, we examined the effect on the in vitro aggregation of a C-terminal fragment of TDP-43 in the presence of HSA. We found that the lag phase in TDP-43^2C aggregation is abrogated in the presence of HSA, but there is an overall decreased aggregation as examined by thioflavin-T fluorescence spectroscopy and microscopy. An early onset of TDP-43^2C oligomer formation in the presence of HSA was observed using atomic force microscopy and transmission electron microscopy. Also, a known chemical inhibitor of TDP-43^2Caggregation, AIM4, abolishes the HSA-induced early formation of TDP-43^2C oligomers. Notably, the aggregates of TDP-43^2C formed in the presence of HSA are more stable against sarkosyl detergent. Using affinity copurification, we observed that HSA can bind to TDP-43^2C, and biolayer interferometry further supported their physical interaction and suggested the binding affinity to be in sub-micromolar range. Taken together, the data support that HSA can interact with TDP-43^2C in vitro and affect its aggregation.

Physicochemical Properties Altered by the Tail Group of Lipid Membranes Influence Huntingtin Aggregation and Lipid Binding

Huntington's disease is a neurodegenerative disorder caused by an expanded polyglutamine (polyQ) domain within the huntingtin protein (htt) that initiates toxic protein aggregation. Htt directly interacts with membranes, influencing aggregation and spurring membrane abnormalities. These interactions are facilitated by the 17 N-terminal residues (Nt17) that form an amphipathic α-helix implicated in both lipid binding and aggregation. Here, the impact of unsaturation in phospholipid tails on htt-lipid interaction and htt aggregation was determined. There was no correlation between the degree of htt-lipid complexation and the degree of htt aggregation in the presence of each lipid system, indicating that lipid systems with different properties uniquely alter the membrane-mediated aggregation mechanisms. Also, the association between Nt17 and membrane surfaces is determined by complementarity between hydrophobic residues and membrane defects and how easily the peptide can partition into the bilayer. Our results provide critical insights into how membrane physical properties influence downstream htt aggregation.

Novel Amylin Analogues Reduce Amyloid-β Cross-Seeding Aggregation and Neurotoxicity

BACKGROUND

Type 2 diabetes related human islet amyloid polypeptide (hIAPP) plays a dual role in Alzheimer's disease (AD). hIAPP has neuroprotective effects in AD mouse models whereas, high hIAPP concentrations can promote co-aggregation with amyloid-β (Aβ) to promote neurodegeneration. In fact, both low and high plasma hIAPP concentration has been associated with AD. Therefore, non-aggregating hIAPP analogues have garnered interest as a treatment for AD. The aromatic amino acids F23 and I26 in hIAPP have been identified as the key residues involved in self-aggregation and Aβ cross-seeding.

OBJECTIVE

Three novel IAPP analogues with single and double alanine mutations (A1 = F23, A2 = I26, and A3 = F23 + I26) were assessed for their ability to aggregate, modulate Aβ oligomer formation, and alter neurotoxicity.

METHODS

A range of biophysical methods including Thioflavin-T, gel electrophoresis, photo-crosslinking, circular dichroism combined with cell viability assays were utilized to assess protein aggregation and toxicity.

RESULTS

All IAPP analogues showed significantly less self-aggregation than hIAPP. Co-aggregated Aβ 42-A2 and A3 also showed reduced aggregation compared to Aβ 42-hIAPP mixtures. Self- and co-oligomerized A1, A2, and A3 exhibited random coil conformations with reduced beta sheet content compared to hIAPP and Aβ 42-hIAPP aggregates. A1 was toxic at high concentrations compared to A2 and A3. However, co-aggregated Aβ 42-A1, A2, or A3 showed reduced neurotoxicity compared to Aβ 42, hIAPP, and Aβ 42-hIAPP aggregates.

CONCLUSION

These findings confirm that hIAPP analogues with non-aromatic residues at positions 23 and 26 have reduced self-aggregation and the ability to neutralize Aβ 42 toxicity. This warrants further characterization of their protective effects in pre-clinical AD models.

Interactions of intrinsically disordered proteins with the unconventional chaperone human serum albumin: From mechanisms of amyloid inhibition to therapeutic opportunities

Human Serum Albumin (HSA), the most abundant protein in plasma, serves a diverse repertoire of biological functions including regulation of oncotic pressure and redox potential, transport of serum solutes, but also chaperoning of misfolded proteins. Here we review how HSA interacts with a wide spectrum of client proteins including intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs) such as Aβ, the islet amyloid peptide (IAPP), alpha synuclein and stressed globular proteins such as insulin. The comparative analysis of the HSA chaperone - client interactions reveals that the amyloid-inhibitory function of HSA arises from at least four emerging mechanisms. Two mechanisms (the monomer stabilizer model and the monomer competitor model) involve the direct binding of HSA to either IDP monomers or oligomers, while other mechanisms (metal chelation and membrane protection) rely on the indirect modulation by HSA of other factors that drive IDP aggregation. While HSA is not the only extracellular chaperone, given its abundance, HSA is likely to account for a significant fraction of the chaperoning effects in plasma, thus opening new therapeutic opportunities in the context of the peripheral sink hypothesis.

TAR DNA-binding protein 43 oligomers in physiology and pathology

TAR DNA-binding protein 43 (TDP-43) is an RNA/DNA-binding protein involved in RNA regulation and diseases. In 2006, TDP-43 inclusions were found in the disease lesions of several neurodegenerative diseases. It is the pathological hallmark in both amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and frontotemporal lobar dementia. It also presents in a large portion of patients with Alzheimer's disease. TDP-43 is prone to aggregate; however, the role of TDP-43 oligomers remains poorly understood in both physiological and pathological conditions. In this review, we emphasize the role of oligomeric TDP-43 in both physiological and pathological conditions and discuss the potential mechanisms of oligomer formation. Finally, we suggest therapeutic strategies against the TDP-43 oligomers in neurodegenerative diseases.

A Disulfide-Stabilized Aβ that Forms Dimers but Does Not Form Fibrils

Aβ dimers are a basic building block of many larger Aβ oligomers and are among the most neurotoxic and pathologically relevant species in Alzheimer's disease. Homogeneous Aβ dimers are difficult to prepare, characterize, and study because Aβ forms heterogeneous mixtures of oligomers that vary in size and can rapidly aggregate into more stable fibrils. This paper introduces Aβ_C18C33 as a disulfide-stabilized analogue of Aβ₄₂ that forms stable homogeneous dimers in lipid environments but does not aggregate to form insoluble fibrils. The Aβ_C18C33 peptide is readily expressed in Escherichia coli and purified by reverse-phase HPLC to give ca. 8 mg of pure peptide per liter of bacterial culture. SDS-PAGE establishes that Aβ_C18C33 forms homogeneous dimers in the membrane-like environment of SDS and that conformational stabilization of the peptide with a disulfide bond prevents the formation of heterogeneous mixtures of oligomers. Mass spectrometric (MS) studies in the presence of dodecyl maltoside (DDM) further confirm the formation of stable noncovalent dimers. Circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy establishes that Aβ_C18C33 adopts a β-sheet conformation in detergent solutions and supports a model in which the intramolecular disulfide bond induces β-hairpin folding and dimer formation in lipid environments. Thioflavin T (ThT) fluorescence assays and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) studies indicate that Aβ_C18C33 does not undergo fibril formation in aqueous buffer solutions and demonstrate that the intramolecular disulfide bond prevents fibril formation. The recently published NMR structure of an Aβ₄₂ tetramer (PDB: 6RHY) provides a working model for the Aβ_C18C33 dimer, in which two β-hairpins assemble through hydrogen bonding to form a four-stranded antiparallel β-sheet. It is anticipated that Aβ_C18C33 will serve as a stable, nonfibrilizing, and noncovalent Aβ dimer model for amyloid and Alzheimer's disease research.

Disordered regions tune order in chromatin organization and function

Intrinsically disordered proteins or hybrid proteins with ordered domains and disordered regions (both collectively designated as IDP(R)s) defy the well-established structure-function paradigm due to their ability to perform multiple biological functions even in the absence of a well-defined 3D structure. IDP(R)s have a unique ability to exist as a functional heterogeneous ensemble, where they adopt multiple thermodynamically stable conformations with low energy barriers between states. The resultant structural plasticity or conformational adaptability provides them with a high functional diversity and ease of regulation. Hence, IDP(R)s are highly efficient biological machinery to mediate intricate cellular functions such as signaling, gene expression, and assembly of complex structures. One such structure is the nucleoprotein complex known as Chromatin. Interestingly, the proteins involved in shaping up the structure and function of chromatin are abundant in disordered regions, which serve more than just as mere flexible linkers. The disordered regions are involved in crucial processes such as gene expression regulation, chromatin architecture maintenance, and liquid-liquid phase separation initiation. This review is an attempt to explore the advantages and the functional and regulatory roles of intrinsic disorder in several Chromatin Associated Proteins from a mechanistic standpoint.

Induction, inhibition, and incorporation: Different roles for anionic and zwitterionic lysolipids in the fibrillation of the functional amyloid FapC

Amyloid proteins are widespread in nature both as pathological species involved in several diseases and as functional entities that can provide protection and storage for the organism. Lipids have been found in amyloid deposits from various amyloid diseases and have been shown to strongly affect the formation and structure of both pathological and functional amyloid proteins. Here, we investigate how fibrillation of the functional amyloid FapC from Pseudomonas is affected by two lysolipids, the zwitterionic lipid 1-myristoyl-2-hydroxy-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine and the anionic lipid 1-myristoyl-2-hydroxy-sn-glycero-3-phospho-(1′-rac-glycerol) (LPG). Small-angle X-ray scattering, circular dichroism, dynamic light scattering, and thioflavin T fluorescence measurements were performed simultaneously on the same sample to ensure reproducibility and allow a multimethod integrated analysis. We found that LPG strongly induces fibrillation around its critical micelle concentration (cmc) by promoting formation of large structures, which mature via accumulation of intermediate fibril structures with a large cross section. At concentrations above its cmc, LPG strongly inhibits fibrillation by locking FapC in a core–shell complex. In contrast, lipid 1-myristoyl-2-hydroxy-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine induces fibrillation at concentrations above its cmc, not via strong interactions with FapC but by being incorporated during fibrillation and likely stabilizing the fibrillation nucleus to reduce the lag phase. Finally, we show that LPG is not incorporated into the fibril during assembly but rather can coat the final fibril. We conclude that lipids affect both the mechanism and outcome of fibrillation of functional amyloid, highlighting a role for lipid concentration and composition in the onset and mechanism of fibrillation in vivo.

Anatomy and Formation Mechanisms of Early Amyloid-β Oligomers with Lateral Branching: Graph Network Analysis on Large-Scale Simulations

Oligomeric amyloid-β aggregates (AβOs) effectively trigger Alzheimer's disease-related toxicity, generating great interest in understanding their structures and formation mechanisms. However, AβOs are heterogeneous and transient, making their structure and formation difficult to study. Here, we performed graph network analysis of tens of microsecond massive simulations of early amyloid-β (Aβ) aggregations at near-atomic resolution to characterize AβO structures with sizes up to 20-mers. We found that AβOs exhibit highly curvilinear, irregular shapes with occasional lateral branches, consistent with recent cryo-electron tomography experiments. We also found that Aβ40 oligomers were more likely to develop branches than Aβ42 oligomers, explaining an experimental observation that only Aβ40 was trapped in network-like aggregates and exhibited slower fibrillization kinetics. Moreover, AβO architecture dissection revealed that their curvilinear appearance is related to the local packing geometries of neighboring peptides and that Aβ40's greater branching ability originates from specific C-terminal interactions at branching interfaces. Finally, we demonstrate that whether Aβ oligomerization causes oligomers to elongate or to branch depends on the sizes and shapes of colliding aggregates. Collectively, this study provides bottom-up structural information for understanding early Aβ aggregation and AβO toxicity.

Graph network analysis on large-scale simulations uncovers the differential branching behaviours of large Aβ40 and Aβ42 oligomers.

Dynamic protein structures in normal function and pathologic misfolding in systemic amyloidosis

Dynamic and disordered regions in native proteins are often critical for their function, particularly in ligand binding and signaling. In certain proteins, however, such regions can contribute to misfolding and pathologic deposition as amyloid fibrils in vivo. For example, dynamic and disordered regions can promote amyloid formation by destabilizing the native structure, by directly triggering the aggregation, by promoting protein condensation, or by acting as sites of early proteolytic cleavage that favor a release of aggregation-prone fragments or facilitate fibril maturation. At the same time, enhanced dynamics in the native protein state accelerates proteolytic degradation that counteracts amyloid accumulation in vivo. Therefore, the functional need for dynamic protein regions must be balanced against their inherently labile nature. How exactly this balance is achieved and how is it shifted upon amyloidogenic mutations or post-translational modifications? To illustrate possible scenarios, here we review the beneficial and pathologic roles of dynamic and disordered regions in the native states of three families of human plasma proteins that form amyloid precursors in systemic amyloidoses: immunoglobulin light chain, apolipoproteins, and serum amyloid A. Analysis of structure, stability and local dynamics of these diverse proteins and their amyloidogenic variants exemplifies how disordered/dynamic regions can provide a functional advantage as well as an Achilles heel in pathologic amyloid formation.

Graphene quantum dots obstruct the membrane axis of Alzheimer's amyloid beta

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a primary form of dementia with debilitating consequences, but no effective cure is available. While the pathophysiology of AD remains multifactorial, the aggregation of amyloid beta (Aβ) mediated by the cell membrane is known to be the cause for the neurodegeneration associated with AD. Here we examined the effects of graphene quantum dots (GQDs) on the obstruction of the membrane axis of Aβ in its three representative forms of monomers (Aβ-m), oligomers (Aβ-o), and amyloid fibrils (Aβ-f). Specifically, we determined the membrane fluidity of neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells perturbed by the Aβ species, especially by the most toxic Aβ-o, and demonstrated their recovery by GQDs using confocal fluorescence microscopy. Our computational data through discrete molecular dynamics simulations further revealed energetically favorable association of the Aβ species with the GQDs in overcoming peptide-peptide aggregation. Overall, this study positively implicated GQDs as an effective agent in breaking down the membrane axis of Aβ, thereby circumventing adverse downstream events and offering a potential therapeutic solution for AD.

Bcl-2-Homology-Only Proapoptotic Peptides Modulate β-Amyloid Aggregation and Toxicity

Aggregation of the β-Amyloid (Aβ) peptide in brain tissues is the hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD). While Aβ is presumed to be insidiously involved in the disease's pathophysiology, concrete mechanisms accounting for the role of Aβ in AD are yet to be deciphered. While Aβ has been primarily identified in the extracellular space, the peptide also accumulates in cellular compartments such as mitochondria and lysosomes and impairs cellular functions. Here, we show that prominent proapoptotic peptides associated with the mitochondrial outer membrane, the Bcl-2-homology-only peptides BID, PUMA, and NOXA, exert significant and divergent effects upon aggregation, cytotoxicity, and membrane interactions of Aβ42, the main Aβ homolog. Interestingly, we show that BID and PUMA accelerated aggregation of Aβ42, reduced Aβ42-induced toxicity and mitochondrial disfunction, and inhibited Aβ42-membrane interactions. In contrast, NOXA exhibited opposite effects, reducing Aβ42 fibril formation, affecting more pronounced apoptotic effects and mitochondrial disfunction, and enhancing membrane interactions of Aβ42. The effects of BID, PUMA, and NOXA upon the Aβ42 structure and toxicity may be linked to its biological properties and affect pathophysiological features of AD.

Probing the Influence of Single-Site Mutations in the Central Cross-β Region of Amyloid β (1-40) Peptides

Amyloid β (Aβ) is a peptide known to form amyloid fibrils in the brain of patients suffering from Alzheimer’s disease. A complete mechanistic understanding how Aβ peptides form neurotoxic assemblies and how they kill neurons has not yet been achieved. Previous analysis of various Aβ₄₀ mutants could reveal the significant importance of the hydrophobic contact between the residues Phe₁₉ and Leu₃₄ for cell toxicity. For some mutations at Phe₁₉, toxicity was completely abolished. In the current study, we assessed if perturbations introduced by mutations in the direct proximity of the Phe₁₉/Leu₃₄ contact would have similar relevance for the fibrillation kinetics, structure, dynamics and toxicity of the Aβ assemblies. To this end, we rationally modified positions Phe₂₀ or Gly₃₃. A small library of Aβ₄₀ peptides with Phe₂₀ mutated to Lys, Tyr or the non-proteinogenic cyclohexylalanine (Cha) or Gly₃₃ mutated to Ala was synthesized. We used electron microscopy, circular dichroism, X-ray diffraction, solid-state NMR spectroscopy, ThT fluorescence and MTT cell toxicity assays to comprehensively investigate the physicochemical properties of the Aβ fibrils formed by the modified peptides as well as toxicity to a neuronal cell line. Single mutations of either Phe₂₀ or Gly₃₃ led to relatively drastic alterations in the Aβ fibrillation kinetics but left the global, as well as the local structure, of the fibrils largely unchanged. Furthermore, the introduced perturbations caused a severe decrease or loss of cell toxicity compared to wildtype Aβ₄₀. We suggest that perturbations at position Phe₂₀ and Gly₃₃ affect the fibrillation pathway of Aβ₄₀ and, thereby, influence the especially toxic oligomeric species manifesting so that the region around the Phe₁₉/Leu₃₄ hydrophobic contact provides a promising site for the design of small molecules interfering with the Aβ fibrillation pathway.

Probing Intermolecular Interactions of Amyloidogenic Fragments of SOD1 by Site-Specific Tryptophan and Its Noncanonical Derivative

Transient amyloid intermediates are likely to be cytotoxic and play an essential role in amyloid-associated neurodegenerative diseases. Characterization of their structural and dynamic evolution is the key to elucidating the molecular mechanism of amyloid formation. Here, combining circular dichroism (CD), exciton couplet theory, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy with site-specific tryptophan (Trp) and its noncanonical derivative 5-cyano-tryptochan (Trp_5CN), we developed a method to monitor strand-to-strand tertiary and sheet-to-sheet quaternary interactions in the aggregation cascades of an amyloidogenic fragment from protein SOD1_28-38 (with the sequence KVKVWGSIKGL). We found that the exciton couplet generated from the B_b band of Trp can be used as a probe for side chain interactions. Its sensitivity can be further improved by four times with the incorporation of Trp_5CN. We further observed a red-shift of ∼2 cm^-1 and a broadening of ∼2 cm^-1 in the IR band generated from the CN stretch during the aggregation, which we attributed to the transition from a corkscrew-like structure to a cross-linked intermediate phase. We show here that the integration of optical methods with unique aromatic side chain-related probes is able to elucidate amyloid intermolecular interactions and even capture elusive transient intermediates on and off the amyloid assembling pathway.

Intermediates of α-synuclein aggregation: Implications in Parkinson's disease pathogenesis

Cytoplasmic deposition of aberrantly misfolded α-synuclein (α-Syn) is a common feature of synucleinopathies, including Parkinson's disease (PD). However, the precise pathogenic mechanism of α-Syn in synucleinopathies remains elusive. Emerging evidence has suggested that α-Syn may contribute to PD pathogenesis in several ways; wherein the contribution of fibrillar species, for exerting toxicity and disease transmission, cannot be neglected. Further, the oligomeric species could be the most plausible neurotoxic species causing neuronal cell death. However, understanding the structural and molecular insights of these oligomers are very challenging due to the heterogeneity and transient nature of the species. In this review, we discuss the recent advancements in understanding the formation and role of α-Syn oligomers in PD pathogenesis. We also summarize the different types of α-Syn oligomeric species and potential mechanisms to exert neurotoxicity. Finally, we address the possible ways to target α-Syn as a promising approach against PD and the possible future directions.

A mechanistic survey of Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common, age-dependent neurodegenerative disorder. While AD has been intensively studied from different aspects, there is no effective cure for AD, largely due to a lack of a clear mechanistic understanding of AD. In this mini-review, we mainly focus on the discussion and summary of mechanistic causes of Alzheimer's disease (AD). While different AD mechanisms illustrate different molecular and cellular pathways in AD pathogenesis, they do not necessarily exclude each other. Instead, some of them could work together to initiate, trigger, and promote the onset and development of AD. In a broader viewpoint, some AD mechanisms (e.g., amyloid aggregation mechanism, microbial infection/neuroinflammation mechanism, and amyloid cross-seeding mechanism) could also be applicable to other amyloid diseases including type II diabetes, Parkinson's disease, and prion disease. Such common mechanisms for AD and other amyloid diseases explain not only the pathogenesis of individual amyloid diseases, but also the spreading of pathologies between these diseases, which will inspire new strategies for therapeutic intervention and prevention for AD.

Differential effect of polyol and sugar osmolytes on the refolding of homologous alpha amylases: A comparative study

Polyol and sugar osmolytes are known to enhance the stability of proteins, however, their role in assisting protein folding is not well understood. We asked whether these osmolytes have the same effect during refolding of a pair of thermophilic and mesophilic proteins. Herein, we have chosen α-amylases from Bacillus licheniformis (BLA) and Bacillus amyloliquefaciens (BAA) as thermophilic like and mesophilic counterparts respectively, having similar structures but differing thermostability. The effect of a series of polyols with varying number of -OH groups from 2 to 6 (Ethylene glycol, glycerol, erythritol, xylitol and sorbitol) and sugars (trehalose and sucrose) has been studied on the refolding of BLA and BAA. Our study demonstrates that glycerol, sorbitol and trehalose are the efficient cosolvents for BAA refolding, while comparatively less effective for BLA. Urea induced destabilization of BLA and BAA is differently compensated by polyol and sugar osmolytes during refolding. This suggests that the early species formed during BLA and BAA refolding are differently susceptible towards urea, indicating differential nature of their refolding pathways. Addition of trehalose at different times during refolding showed that the presence of trehalose is essential at the early stages of refolding. It is one of the first systematic study wherein the comparative effect of polyol and sugar assisted refolding of thermophilic and mesophilic protein has been carried out. The study highlights the differential effect of protein-osmolyte interactions during refolding of thermophilic and mesophilic proteins which may have implications in protein formulations, refolding and inhibition of aggregation.

Aggregation and the Intrinsic Structural Disorder of Dipeptide Repeat Peptides of C9orf72-Related Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis and Frontotemporal Dementia Characterized by NMR

Dipeptide repeats (DPRs) are known to play important roles in C9ORF72-related amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and frontotemporal dementia (FTD). Studies on DPRs have reported on the kinetics of aggregation, toxicity, and low-resolution morphology of the aggregates of these peptides. While the dipeptide hexa-repeats of Gly-Pro [(GP)₆] have been shown to be nonaggregating, Gly-Ala [(GA)₆] and Gly-Arg [(GR)₆] exhibited the formation of neurotoxic aggregates. However, structural studies of these DPRs have been elusive. In this study, we explored the feasibility of a high-resolution monitoring of a real-time aggregation of these peptides in a solution by using NMR experiments. Although (GP)₆ is disordered and nonaggregating, the existence of cis and trans conformations was observed from NMR spectra. It was remarkable that the (GR)₆ exhibited the formation of multiple conformations, whereas the hydrophobic and low-soluble (GA)₆ aggregated fast in a temperature-dependent manner. These results demonstrate the feasibility of monitoring the minor conformational changes from highly disordered peptides, aggregation kinetics, and the formation of small molecular weight aggregates by solution NMR experiments. The ability to detect cis and trans local isomerizations in (GP)₆ is noteworthy and could be valuable to study intrinsically disordered proteins/peptides by NMR. The early detection of minor conformational changes could be valuable in better understanding the mechanistic insights into the formation of toxic intermediates and the development of approaches to inhibit them and, potentially, aid in the development of compounds to treat the devastating C9ORF72-related ALS and FTD diseases.

Inhibitory effects of carbon quantum dots towards hen egg white lysozyme amyloidogenesis through formation of a stable protein complex

Proteins, under certain circumstances such as defective quality control mechanism, mutations and altered environmental conditions, undergo misfolding and assemble into highly ordered beta-sheet structured fibrillar aggregates called amyloid fibrils. Formation of amyloid is seen in most of the protein linked degenerative diseases like Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, Type II diabetes mellitus and many more. Amyloid fibril forms via intermediate state(s), and is known to follow a nucleated condensation polymerization mechanism. Though extensive research is being carried out towards finding a therapeutic solution to the amyloidosis, an effective treatment to these diseases still remains elusive and also the mechanism of amyloidogenesis largely remains unclear. In recent times, carbon quantum dots (CQDs) are gaining the attention of researchers due to their semi-conductive nature, excellent physio-chemical properties, high surface to volume ratio, optical properties and mainly bio-compatibility. In the current study, we have synthesized CQDs from commonly available kitchen spice mix and explored their role in amyloidogenesis using hen egg white lysozyme (HEWL) as a model protein. The results clearly demonstrate the amyloid inhibitory as well as disaggregation potential of CQD by forming a stable complex with HEWL and thereby increasing the energy barrier for the aggregation process.