1
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Chandrasekaran A, Graham K, Stachowiak JC, Rangamani P. Kinetic trapping organizes actin filaments within liquid-like protein droplets. Nat Commun 2024; 15:3139. [PMID: 38605007 PMCID: PMC11009352 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-46726-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2023] [Accepted: 03/07/2024] [Indexed: 04/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Several actin-binding proteins (ABPs) phase separate to form condensates capable of curating the actin network shapes. Here, we use computational modeling to understand the principles of actin network organization within VASP condensate droplets. Our simulations reveal that the different actin shapes, namely shells, rings, and mixture states are highly dependent on the kinetics of VASP-actin interactions, suggesting that they arise from kinetic trapping. Specifically, we show that reducing the residence time of VASP on actin filaments reduces degree of bundling, thereby promoting assembly of shells rather than rings. We validate the model predictions experimentally using a VASP-mutant with decreased bundling capability. Finally, we investigate the ring opening within deformed droplets and found that the sphere-to-ellipsoid transition is favored under a wide range of filament lengths while the ellipsoid-to-rod transition is only permitted when filaments have a specific range of lengths. Our findings highlight key mechanisms of actin organization within phase-separated ABPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aravind Chandrasekaran
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0411, USA
| | - Kristin Graham
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, 78712, USA
| | - Jeanne C Stachowiak
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, 78712, USA.
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, 78712, USA.
| | - Padmini Rangamani
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0411, USA.
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2
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Wang Y, Liu YR, Wang PY, Xie P. Computational Studies Reveal How Passive Cross-Linkers Regulate Anaphase Spindle Elongation. J Phys Chem B 2024; 128:1194-1204. [PMID: 38287918 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.3c07655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2024]
Abstract
In eukaryotic cell division, a series of events are organized to produce two daughter cells. The spindle elongation in anaphase B is essential for providing enough space to maintain cell size and distribute sister chromatids properly, which is associated with microtubules and microtubule-associated proteins such as kinesin-5 Eg5 and the Ase1-related protein, PRC1. The available experimental data indicated that after the start of anaphase B more PRC1 proteins can bind to the antiparallel microtubule pairs in the spindle but the excess amount of PRC1 proteins can lead to the failure of cell division, indicating that PRC1 proteins can regulate the spindle elongation in a concentration-dependent manner. However, the underlying mechanism of the PRC1 proteins regulating the spindle elongation has not been explained up to now. Here, we use a simplified model, where only the two important participants (kinesin-5 Eg5 motors and PRC1 proteins) are considered, to study the spindle elongation during anaphase B. We first show that only in the appropriate range of the PRC1 concentration can the spindle elongation complete properly. Furthermore, we explore the underlying mechanism of PRC1 as a regulator for spindle elongation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yao Wang
- Key Laboratory of Soft Matter Physics, Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
- School of Physical Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Yu-Ru Liu
- Key Laboratory of Soft Matter Physics, Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
- School of Physical Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Peng-Ye Wang
- Key Laboratory of Soft Matter Physics, Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
- School of Physical Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Ping Xie
- Key Laboratory of Soft Matter Physics, Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
- School of Physical Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
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3
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Cho DH, Aguayo S, Cartagena-Rivera AX. Atomic force microscopy-mediated mechanobiological profiling of complex human tissues. Biomaterials 2023; 303:122389. [PMID: 37988897 PMCID: PMC10842832 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2023.122389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2023] [Revised: 10/30/2023] [Accepted: 11/04/2023] [Indexed: 11/23/2023]
Abstract
Tissue mechanobiology is an emerging field with the overarching goal of understanding the interplay between biophysical and biochemical responses affecting development, physiology, and disease. Changes in mechanical properties including stiffness and viscosity have been shown to describe how cells and tissues respond to mechanical cues and modify critical biological functions. To quantitatively characterize the mechanical properties of tissues at physiologically relevant conditions, atomic force microscopy (AFM) has emerged as a highly versatile biomechanical technology. In this review, we describe the fundamental principles of AFM, typical AFM modalities used for tissue mechanics, and commonly used elastic and viscoelastic contact mechanics models to characterize complex human tissues. Furthermore, we discuss the application of AFM-based mechanobiology to characterize the mechanical responses within complex human tissues to track their developmental, physiological/functional, and diseased states, including oral, hearing, and cancer-related tissues. Finally, we discuss the current outlook and challenges to further advance the field of tissue mechanobiology. Altogether, AFM-based tissue mechanobiology provides a mechanistic understanding of biological processes governing the unique functions of tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- David H Cho
- Section on Mechanobiology, National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Sebastian Aguayo
- Dentistry School, Faculty of Medicine, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile; Schools of Engineering, Medicine, and Biological Sciences, Institute for Biological and Medical Engineering, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Alexander X Cartagena-Rivera
- Section on Mechanobiology, National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.
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4
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Gergely ZR, Jones MH, Zhou B, Cash C, McIntosh JR, Betterton MD. Distinct regions of the kinesin-5 C-terminal tail are essential for mitotic spindle midzone localization and sliding force. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2023; 120:e2306480120. [PMID: 37725645 PMCID: PMC10523502 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2306480120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2023] [Accepted: 07/05/2023] [Indexed: 09/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Kinesin-5 motor proteins play essential roles during mitosis in most organisms. Their tetrameric structure and plus-end-directed motility allow them to bind to and move along antiparallel microtubules, thereby pushing spindle poles apart to assemble a bipolar spindle. Recent work has shown that the C-terminal tail is particularly important to kinesin-5 function: The tail affects motor domain structure, ATP hydrolysis, motility, clustering, and sliding force measured for purified motors, as well as motility, clustering, and spindle assembly in cells. Because previous work has focused on presence or absence of the entire tail, the functionally important regions of the tail remain to be identified. We have therefore characterized a series of kinesin-5/Cut7 tail truncation alleles in fission yeast. Partial truncation causes mitotic defects and temperature-sensitive growth, while further truncation that removes the conserved BimC motif is lethal. We compared the sliding force generated by cut7 mutants using a kinesin-14 mutant background in which some microtubules detach from the spindle poles and are pushed into the nuclear envelope. These Cut7-driven protrusions decreased as more of the tail was truncated, and the most severe truncations produced no observable protrusions. Our observations suggest that the C-terminal tail of Cut7p contributes to both sliding force and midzone localization. In the context of sequential tail truncation, the BimC motif and adjacent C-terminal amino acids are particularly important for sliding force. In addition, moderate tail truncation increases midzone localization, but further truncation of residues N-terminal to the BimC motif decreases midzone localization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zachary R Gergely
- Department of Physics, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309
| | - Michele H Jones
- Department of Physics, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309
| | - Bojun Zhou
- Department of Physics, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309
| | - Cai Cash
- Department of Physics, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309
| | - J Richard McIntosh
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309
| | - Meredith D Betterton
- Department of Physics, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309
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5
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Nayak P, Chatterjee S, Paul R. Microtubule search-and-capture model evaluates the effect of chromosomal volume conservation on spindle assembly during mitosis. Phys Rev E 2023; 108:034401. [PMID: 37849183 DOI: 10.1103/physreve.108.034401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2023] [Accepted: 06/23/2023] [Indexed: 10/19/2023]
Abstract
Variation in the chromosome numbers can arise from the erroneous mitosis or fusion and fission of chromosomes. While the mitotic errors lead to an increase or decrease in the overall chromosomal substance in the daughter cells, fission and fusion keep this conserved. Variations in chromosome numbers are assumed to be a crucial driver of speciation. For example, the members of the muntjac species are known to have very different karyotypes with the chromosome numbers varying from 2n=70+3B in the brown brocket deer to 2n=46 in the Chinese muntjac and 2n=6/7 in the Indian muntjac. The chromosomal content in the nucleus of these closely related mammals is roughly the same and various chromosome fusion and fission pathways have been suggested as the evolution process of these karyotypes. Similar trends can also be found in lepidoptera and yeast species which show a wide variation of chromosome numbers. The effect of chromosome number variation on the spindle assembly time and accuracy is still not properly addressed. We computationally investigate the effect of conservation of the total chromosomal substance on the spindle assembly during prometaphase. Our results suggest that chromosomal fusion pathways aid the microtubule-driven search and capture of the kinetochore in cells with monocentric chromosomes. We further report a comparative analysis of the site and percentage of amphitelic captures, dependence on cell shape, and position of the kinetochore in respect to chromosomal volume partitioning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pinaki Nayak
- School of Mathematical and Computational Sciences, Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science, Kolkata 700032, India
| | - Saptarshi Chatterjee
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, USA
| | - Raja Paul
- School of Mathematical and Computational Sciences, Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science, Kolkata 700032, India
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6
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Li X, Bloomfield M, Bridgeland A, Cimini D, Chen J. A fine balance among key biophysical factors is required for recovery of bipolar mitotic spindle from monopolar and multipolar abnormalities. Mol Biol Cell 2023; 34:ar90. [PMID: 37342878 PMCID: PMC10398891 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e22-10-0485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2022] [Revised: 06/12/2023] [Accepted: 06/15/2023] [Indexed: 06/23/2023] Open
Abstract
During mitosis, equal partitioning of chromosomes into two daughter cells requires assembly of a bipolar mitotic spindle. Because the spindle poles are each organized by a centrosome in animal cells, centrosome defects can lead to monopolar or multipolar spindles. However, the cell can effectively recover the bipolar spindle by separating the centrosomes in monopolar spindles and clustering them in multipolar spindles. To interrogate how a cell can separate and cluster centrosomes as needed to form a bipolar spindle, we developed a biophysical model, based on experimental data, which uses effective potential energies to describe key mechanical forces driving centrosome movements during spindle assembly. Our model identified general biophysical factors crucial for robust bipolarization of spindles that start as monopolar or multipolar. These factors include appropriate force fluctuation between centrosomes, balance between repulsive and attractive forces between centrosomes, exclusion of the centrosomes from the cell center, proper cell size and geometry, and a limited centrosome number. Consistently, we found experimentally that bipolar centrosome clustering is promoted as mitotic cell aspect ratio and volume decrease in tetraploid cancer cells. Our model provides mechanistic explanations for many more experimental phenomena and a useful theoretical framework for future studies of spindle assembly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaochu Li
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061
- BIOTRANS Graduate Program, Virginia Tech, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061
| | - Mathew Bloomfield
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061
- Fralin Life Sciences Institute, Virginia Tech, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061
| | - Alexandra Bridgeland
- Fralin Life Sciences Institute, Virginia Tech, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061
- Systems Biology Program, College of Science, Virginia Tech, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061
| | - Daniela Cimini
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061
- Fralin Life Sciences Institute, Virginia Tech, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061
| | - Jing Chen
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061
- Fralin Life Sciences Institute, Virginia Tech, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061
- Center for Soft Matter and Biological Physics, Virginia Tech, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061
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7
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Gergely Z, Jones MH, Zhou B, Cash C, McIntosh R, Betterton M. Distinct regions of the kinesin-5 C-terminal tail are essential for mitotic spindle midzone localization and sliding force. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.05.01.538972. [PMID: 37205432 PMCID: PMC10187184 DOI: 10.1101/2023.05.01.538972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Kinesin-5 motor proteins play essential roles during mitosis in most organisms. Their tetrameric structure and plus-end-directed motility allow them to bind to and move along antiparallel microtubules, thereby pushing spindle poles apart to assemble a bipolar spindle. Recent work has shown that the C-terminal tail is particularly important to kinesin-5 function: the tail affects motor domain structure, ATP hydrolysis, motility, clustering, and sliding force measured for purified motors, as well as motility, clustering, and spindle assembly in cells. Because previous work has focused on presence or absence of the entire tail, the functionally important regions of the tail remain to be identified. We have therefore characterized a series of kinesin-5/Cut7 tail truncation alleles in fission yeast. Partial truncation causes mitotic defects and temperature-sensitive growth, while further truncation that removes the conserved BimC motif is lethal. We compared the sliding force generated by cut7 mutants using a kinesin-14 mutant background in which some microtubules detach from the spindle poles and are pushed into the nuclear envelope. These Cut7-driven protrusions decreased as more of the tail was truncated, and the most severe truncations produced no observable protrusions. Our observations suggest that the C-terminal tail of Cut7p contributes to both sliding force and midzone localization. In the context of sequential tail truncation, the BimC motif and adjacent C-terminal amino acids are particularly important for sliding force. In addition, moderate tail truncation increases midzone localization, but further truncation of residues N terminal to the BimC motif decreases midzone localization.
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8
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Zareiesfandabadi P, Elting MW. Force by minus-end motors Dhc1 and Klp2 collapses the S. pombe spindle after laser ablation. Biophys J 2022; 121:263-276. [PMID: 34951983 PMCID: PMC8790213 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2021.12.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2021] [Revised: 11/19/2021] [Accepted: 12/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
A microtubule-based machine called the mitotic spindle segregates chromosomes when eukaryotic cells divide. In the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe, which undergoes closed mitosis, the spindle forms a single bundle of microtubules inside the nucleus. During elongation, the spindle extends via antiparallel microtubule sliding by molecular motors. These extensile forces from the spindle are thought to resist compressive forces from the nucleus. We probe the mechanism and maintenance of this force balance via laser ablation of spindles at various stages of mitosis. We find that spindle pole bodies collapse toward each other after ablation, but spindle geometry is often rescued, allowing spindles to resume elongation. Although this basic behavior has been previously observed, many questions remain about the phenomenon's dynamics, mechanics, and molecular requirements. In this work, we find that previously hypothesized viscoelastic relaxation of the nucleus cannot explain spindle shortening in response to laser ablation. Instead, spindle collapse requires microtubule dynamics and is powered by the minus-end-directed motor proteins dynein Dhc1 and kinesin-14 Klp2, but it does not require the minus-end-directed kinesin Pkl1.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mary Williard Elting
- Department of Physics, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina,Cluster for Quantitative and Computational Developmental Biology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina,Corresponding author
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9
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Mechanical Torque Promotes Bipolarity of the Mitotic Spindle Through Multi-centrosomal Clustering. Bull Math Biol 2022; 84:29. [PMID: 35006409 DOI: 10.1007/s11538-021-00985-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2021] [Accepted: 12/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Intracellular forces shape cellular organization and function. One example is the mitotic spindle, a cellular machine consisting of multiple chromosomes and centrosomes which interact via dynamic microtubule filaments and motor proteins, resulting in complicated spatially dependent forces. For a cell to divide properly, it is important for the spindle to be bipolar, with chromosomes at the center and multiple centrosomes clustered into two 'poles' at opposite sides of the chromosomes. Experimental observations show that in unhealthy cells, the spindle can take on a variety of patterns. What forces drive each of these patterns? It is known that attraction between centrosomes is key to bipolarity, but what prevents the centrosomes from collapsing into a monopolar configuration? Here, we explore the hypothesis that torque rotating chromosome arms into orientations perpendicular to the centrosome-centromere vector promotes spindle bipolarity. To test this hypothesis, we construct a pairwise-interaction model of the spindle. On a continuum version of the model, an integro-PDE system, we perform linear stability analysis and construct numerical solutions which display a variety of spatial patterns. We also simulate a discrete particle model resulting in a phase diagram that confirms that the spindle bipolarity emerges most robustly with torque. Altogether, our results suggest that rotational forces may play an important role in dictating spindle patterning.
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10
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Yan W, Ansari S, Lamson A, Glaser MA, Blackwell R, Betterton MD, Shelley M. Toward the cellular-scale simulation of motor-driven cytoskeletal assemblies. eLife 2022; 11:74160. [PMID: 35617115 PMCID: PMC9135453 DOI: 10.7554/elife.74160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2021] [Accepted: 04/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The cytoskeleton - a collection of polymeric filaments, molecular motors, and crosslinkers - is a foundational example of active matter, and in the cell assembles into organelles that guide basic biological functions. Simulation of cytoskeletal assemblies is an important tool for modeling cellular processes and understanding their surprising material properties. Here, we present aLENS (a Living Ensemble Simulator), a novel computational framework designed to surmount the limits of conventional simulation methods. We model molecular motors with crosslinking kinetics that adhere to a thermodynamic energy landscape, and integrate the system dynamics while efficiently and stably enforcing hard-body repulsion between filaments. Molecular potentials are entirely avoided in imposing steric constraints. Utilizing parallel computing, we simulate tens to hundreds of thousands of cytoskeletal filaments and crosslinking motors, recapitulating emergent phenomena such as bundle formation and buckling. This simulation framework can help elucidate how motor type, thermal fluctuations, internal stresses, and confinement determine the evolution of cytoskeletal active matter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen Yan
- Center for Computational Biology, Flatiron InstituteNew YorkUnited States
| | - Saad Ansari
- Department of Physics, University of Colorado BoulderBoulderUnited States
| | - Adam Lamson
- Center for Computational Biology, Flatiron InstituteNew YorkUnited States,Department of Physics, University of Colorado BoulderBoulderUnited States
| | - Matthew A Glaser
- Department of Physics, University of Colorado BoulderBoulderUnited States
| | - Robert Blackwell
- Center for Computational Biology, Flatiron InstituteNew YorkUnited States
| | - Meredith D Betterton
- Center for Computational Biology, Flatiron InstituteNew YorkUnited States,Department of Physics, University of Colorado BoulderBoulderUnited States,Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado BoulderBoulderUnited States
| | - Michael Shelley
- Center for Computational Biology, Flatiron InstituteNew YorkUnited States,Courant Institute, New York UniversityNew YorkUnited States
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11
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Chatterjee S, Som S, Varshney N, Satyadev P, Sanyal K, Paul R. Mechanics of microtubule organizing center clustering and spindle positioning in budding yeast Cryptococcus neoformans. Phys Rev E 2021; 104:034402. [PMID: 34654156 DOI: 10.1103/physreve.104.034402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2021] [Accepted: 08/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
The dynamic process of mitotic spindle assembly depends on multitudes of inter-dependent interactions involving kinetochores (KTs), microtubules (MTs), spindle pole bodies (SPBs), and molecular motors. Before forming the mitotic spindle, multiple visible microtubule organizing centers (MTOCs) coalesce into a single focus to serve as an SPB in the pathogenic budding yeast, Cryptococcus neoformans. To explain this unusual phenomenon in the fungal kingdom, we propose a "search and capture" model, in which cytoplasmic MTs (cMTs) nucleated by MTOCs grow and capture each other to promote MTOC clustering. Our quantitative modeling identifies multiple redundant mechanisms mediated by a combination of cMT-cell cortex interactions and inter-cMT coupling to facilitate MTOC clustering within the physiological time limit as determined by time-lapse live-cell microscopy. Besides, we screen various possible mechanisms by computational modeling and propose optimal conditions that favor proper spindle positioning-a critical determinant for timely chromosome segregation. These analyses also reveal that a combined effect of MT buckling, dynein pull, and cortical push maintains spatiotemporal spindle localization.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Subhendu Som
- Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science, Kolkata-700032, India
| | - Neha Varshney
- Molecular Mycology Laboratory, Molecular Biology and Genetics Unit, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, Jakkur, Bangalore 560064, India
| | - Pvs Satyadev
- Molecular Mycology Laboratory, Molecular Biology and Genetics Unit, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, Jakkur, Bangalore 560064, India
| | - Kaustuv Sanyal
- Molecular Mycology Laboratory, Molecular Biology and Genetics Unit, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, Jakkur, Bangalore 560064, India
| | - Raja Paul
- Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science, Kolkata-700032, India
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12
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Fiorenza SA, Steckhahn DG, Betterton MD. Modeling spatiotemporally varying protein-protein interactions in CyLaKS, the Cytoskeleton Lattice-based Kinetic Simulator. THE EUROPEAN PHYSICAL JOURNAL. E, SOFT MATTER 2021; 44:105. [PMID: 34406510 PMCID: PMC10202044 DOI: 10.1140/epje/s10189-021-00097-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2021] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Interaction of cytoskeletal filaments, motor proteins, and crosslinking proteins drives important cellular processes such as cell division and cell movement. Cytoskeletal networks also exhibit nonequilibrium self-assembly in reconstituted systems. An emerging problem in cytoskeletal modeling and simulation is spatiotemporal alteration of the dynamics of filaments, motors, and associated proteins. This can occur due to motor crowding, obstacles along the filament, motor interactions and direction switching, and changes, defects, or heterogeneity in the filament binding lattice. How such spatiotemporally varying cytoskeletal filaments and motor interactions affect their collective properties is not fully understood. We developed the Cytoskeleton Lattice-based Kinetic Simulator (CyLaKS) to investigate such problems. The simulation model builds on previous work by incorporating motor mechanochemistry into a simulation with many interacting motors and/or associated proteins on a discretized lattice. CyLaKS also includes detailed balance in binding kinetics, movement, and lattice heterogeneity. The simulation framework is flexible and extensible for future modeling work and is available on GitHub for others to freely use or build upon. Here we illustrate the use of CyLaKS to study long-range motor interactions, microtubule lattice heterogeneity, motion of a heterodimeric motor, and how changing crosslinker number affects filament separation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shane A Fiorenza
- Department of Physics, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, USA
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13
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Mercadante DL, Manning AL, Olson SD. Modeling reveals cortical dynein-dependent fluctuations in bipolar spindle length. Biophys J 2021; 120:3192-3210. [PMID: 34197801 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2021.05.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2020] [Revised: 04/26/2021] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Proper formation and maintenance of the mitotic spindle is required for faithful cell division. Although much work has been done to understand the roles of the key molecular components of the mitotic spindle, identifying the consequences of force perturbations in the spindle remains a challenge. We develop a computational framework accounting for the minimal force requirements of mitotic progression. To reflect early spindle formation, we model microtubule dynamics and interactions with major force-generating motors, excluding chromosome interactions that dominate later in mitosis. We directly integrate our experimental data to define and validate the model. We then use simulations to analyze individual force components over time and their relationship to spindle dynamics, making it distinct from previously published models. We show through both model predictions and biological manipulation that rather than achieving and maintaining a constant bipolar spindle length, fluctuations in pole-to-pole distance occur that coincide with microtubule binding and force generation by cortical dynein. Our model further predicts that high dynein activity is required for spindle bipolarity when kinesin-14 (HSET) activity is also high. To the best of our knowledge, our results provide novel insight into the role of cortical dynein in the regulation of spindle bipolarity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dayna L Mercadante
- Bioinformatics and Computational Biology Program, Worcester, Massachusetts
| | - Amity L Manning
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology, Worcester, Massachusetts.
| | - Sarah D Olson
- Department of Mathematical Sciences, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, Massachusetts.
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14
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Lamson AR, Moore JM, Fang F, Glaser MA, Shelley MJ, Betterton MD. Comparison of explicit and mean-field models of cytoskeletal filaments with crosslinking motors. THE EUROPEAN PHYSICAL JOURNAL. E, SOFT MATTER 2021; 44:45. [PMID: 33779863 PMCID: PMC8220871 DOI: 10.1140/epje/s10189-021-00042-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2021] [Accepted: 02/20/2021] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
In cells, cytoskeletal filament networks are responsible for cell movement, growth, and division. Filaments in the cytoskeleton are driven and organized by crosslinking molecular motors. In reconstituted cytoskeletal systems, motor activity is responsible for far-from-equilibrium phenomena such as active stress, self-organized flow, and spontaneous nematic defect generation. How microscopic interactions between motors and filaments lead to larger-scale dynamics remains incompletely understood. To build from motor-filament interactions to predict bulk behavior of cytoskeletal systems, more computationally efficient techniques for modeling motor-filament interactions are needed. Here, we derive a coarse-graining hierarchy of explicit and continuum models for crosslinking motors that bind to and walk on filament pairs. We compare the steady-state motor distribution and motor-induced filament motion for the different models and analyze their computational cost. All three models agree well in the limit of fast motor binding kinetics. Evolving a truncated moment expansion of motor density speeds the computation by [Formula: see text]-[Formula: see text] compared to the explicit or continuous-density simulations, suggesting an approach for more efficient simulation of large networks. These tools facilitate further study of motor-filament networks on micrometer to millimeter length scales.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam R Lamson
- Department of Physics, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, USA.
| | - Jeffrey M Moore
- Department of Physics, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, USA
| | - Fang Fang
- Courant Institute, New York University, New York, USA
| | - Matthew A Glaser
- Department of Physics, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, USA
| | - Michael J Shelley
- Courant Institute, New York University, New York, USA
- Center for Computational Biology, Flatiron Institute, New York, USA
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15
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Wierenga H, Wolde PRT. Diffusible Cross-linkers Cause Superexponential Friction Forces. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2020; 125:078101. [PMID: 32857554 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.125.078101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2019] [Accepted: 07/15/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The friction between cytoskeletal filaments is of central importance for the formation of cellular structures such as the mitotic spindle and the cytokinetic ring. This friction is caused by passive cross-linkers, yet the underlying mechanism and the dependence on cross-linker density are poorly understood. Here, we use theory and computer simulations to study the friction between two filaments that are cross-linked by passive proteins, which can hop between discrete binding sites while physically excluding each other. The simulations reveal that filaments move via rare discrete jumps, which are associated with free-energy barrier crossings. We identify the reaction coordinate that governs the relative microtubule movement and derive an exact analytical expression for the free-energy barrier and the friction coefficient. Our analysis not only elucidates the molecular mechanism underlying cross-linker-induced filament friction, but also predicts that the friction coefficient scales superexponentially with the density of cross-linkers.
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16
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Chatterjee S, Sarkar A, Zhu J, Khodjakov A, Mogilner A, Paul R. Mechanics of Multicentrosomal Clustering in Bipolar Mitotic Spindles. Biophys J 2020; 119:434-447. [PMID: 32610087 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2020.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2019] [Revised: 04/06/2020] [Accepted: 06/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
To segregate chromosomes in mitosis, cells assemble a mitotic spindle, a molecular machine with centrosomes at two opposing cell poles and chromosomes at the equator. Microtubules and molecular motors connect the poles to kinetochores, specialized protein assemblies on the centromere regions of the chromosomes. Bipolarity of the spindle is crucial for the proper cell division, and two centrosomes in animal cells naturally become two spindle poles. Cancer cells are often multicentrosomal, yet they are able to assemble bipolar spindles by clustering centrosomes into two spindle poles. Mechanisms of this clustering are debated. In this study, we computationally screen effective forces between 1) centrosomes, 2) centrosomes and kinetochores, 3) centrosomes and chromosome arms, and 4) centrosomes and cell cortex to understand mechanics that determines three-dimensional spindle architecture. To do this, we use the stochastic Monte Carlo search for stable mechanical equilibria in the effective energy landscape of the spindle. We find that the following conditions have to be met to robustly assemble the bipolar spindle in a multicentrosomal cell: 1) the strengths of centrosomes' attraction to each other and to the cell cortex have to be proportional to each other and 2) the strengths of centrosomes' attraction to kinetochores and repulsion from the chromosome arms have to be proportional to each other. We also find that three other spindle configurations emerge if these conditions are not met: 1) collapsed, 2) monopolar, and 3) multipolar spindles, and the computational screen reveals mechanical conditions for these abnormal spindles.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Apurba Sarkar
- Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science, Kolkata, India
| | - Jie Zhu
- Gerber Technology, Tolland, Connecticut
| | - Alexei Khodjakov
- Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, New York; Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York
| | - Alex Mogilner
- Courant Institute and Department of Biology, New York University, New York, New York.
| | - Raja Paul
- Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science, Kolkata, India.
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17
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Edelmaier C, Lamson AR, Gergely ZR, Ansari S, Blackwell R, McIntosh JR, Glaser MA, Betterton MD. Mechanisms of chromosome biorientation and bipolar spindle assembly analyzed by computational modeling. eLife 2020; 9:48787. [PMID: 32053104 PMCID: PMC7311174 DOI: 10.7554/elife.48787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2019] [Accepted: 02/12/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The essential functions required for mitotic spindle assembly and chromosome biorientation and segregation are not fully understood, despite extensive study. To illuminate the combinations of ingredients most important to align and segregate chromosomes and simultaneously assemble a bipolar spindle, we developed a computational model of fission-yeast mitosis. Robust chromosome biorientation requires progressive restriction of attachment geometry, destabilization of misaligned attachments, and attachment force dependence. Large spindle length fluctuations can occur when the kinetochore-microtubule attachment lifetime is long. The primary spindle force generators are kinesin-5 motors and crosslinkers in early mitosis, while interkinetochore stretch becomes important after biorientation. The same mechanisms that contribute to persistent biorientation lead to segregation of chromosomes to the poles after anaphase onset. This model therefore provides a framework to interrogate key requirements for robust chromosome biorientation, spindle length regulation, and force generation in the spindle. Before a cell divides, it must make a copy of its genetic material and then promptly split in two. This process, called mitosis, is coordinated by many different molecular machines. The DNA is copied, then the duplicated chromosomes line up at the middle of the cell. Next, an apparatus called the mitotic spindle latches onto the chromosomes before pulling them apart. The mitotic spindle is a bundle of long, thin filaments called microtubules. It attaches to chromosomes at the kinetochore, the point where two copied chromosomes are cinched together in their middle. Proper cell division is vital for the healthy growth of all organisms, big and small, and yet some parts of the process remain poorly understood despite extensive study. Specifically, there is more to learn about how the mitotic spindle self-assembles, and how microtubules and kinetochores work together to correctly orient and segregate chromosomes into two sister cells. These nanoscale processes are happening a hundred times a minute, so computer simulations are a good way to test what we know. Edelmaier et al. developed a computer model to simulate cell division in fission yeast, a species of yeast often used to study fundamental processes in the cell. The model simulates how the mitotic spindle assembles, how its microtubules attach to the kinetochore and the force required to pull two sister chromosomes apart. Building the simulation involved modelling interactions between the mitotic spindle and kinetochore, their movement and forces applied. To test its accuracy, model simulations were compared to recordings of the mitotic spindle – including its length, structure and position – imaged from dividing yeast cells. Running the simulation, Edelmaier et al. found that several key effects are essential for the proper movement of chromosomes in mitosis. This includes holding chromosomes in the correct orientation as the mitotic spindle assembles and controlling the relative position of microtubules as they attach to the kinetochore. Misaligned attachments must also be readily deconstructed and corrected to prevent any errors. The simulations also showed that kinetochores must begin to exert more force (to separate the chromosomes) once the mitotic spindle is attached correctly. Altogether, these findings improve the current understanding of how the mitotic spindle and its counterparts control cell division. Errors in chromosome segregation are associated with birth defects and cancer in humans, and this new simulation could potentially now be used to help make predictions about how to correct mistakes in the process.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Adam R Lamson
- Department of Physics, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, United States
| | - Zachary R Gergely
- Department of Physics, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, United States.,Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, United States
| | - Saad Ansari
- Department of Physics, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, United States
| | - Robert Blackwell
- Department of Physics, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, United States
| | - J Richard McIntosh
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, United States
| | - Matthew A Glaser
- Department of Physics, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, United States
| | - Meredith D Betterton
- Department of Physics, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, United States.,Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, United States
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18
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Leary A, Sim S, Nazarova E, Shulist K, Genthial R, Yang SK, Bui KH, Francois P, Vogel J. Successive Kinesin-5 Microtubule Crosslinking and Sliding Promote Fast, Irreversible Formation of a Stereotyped Bipolar Spindle. Curr Biol 2019; 29:3825-3837.e3. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2019.09.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2019] [Revised: 07/24/2019] [Accepted: 09/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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19
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Mauro AJ, Jonasson EM, Goodson HV. Relationship between dynamic instability of individual microtubules and flux of subunits into and out of polymer. Cytoskeleton (Hoboken) 2019; 76:495-516. [PMID: 31403242 DOI: 10.1002/cm.21557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2019] [Revised: 07/03/2019] [Accepted: 07/31/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Behaviors of dynamic polymers such as microtubules and actin are frequently assessed at one or both of the following scales: (a) net assembly or disassembly of bulk polymer, (b) growth and shortening of individual filaments. Previous work has derived various forms of an equation to relate the rate of change in bulk polymer mass (i.e., flux of subunits into and out of polymer, often abbreviated as "J") to individual filament behaviors. However, these versions of the "J equation" differ in the variables used to quantify individual filament behavior, which correspond to different experimental approaches. For example, some variants of the J equation use dynamic instability parameters, obtained by following particular individual filaments for long periods of time. Another form of the equation uses measurements from many individuals followed over short time steps. We use a combination of derivations and computer simulations that mimic experiments to (a) relate the various forms of the J equation to each other, (b) determine conditions under which these J equation forms are and are not equivalent, and (c) identify aspects of the measurements that can affect the accuracy of each form of the J equation. Improved understanding of the J equation and its connections to experimentally measurable quantities will contribute to efforts to build a multiscale understanding of steady-state polymer behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ava J Mauro
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana
| | - Erin M Jonasson
- Department of Natural Sciences, Saint Martin's University, Lacey, Washington
| | - Holly V Goodson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana
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20
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Simunić J, Subramanian R. Meeting report - Mitotic spindle: from living and synthetic systems to theory. J Cell Sci 2019; 132:132/17/jcs237602. [PMID: 31477579 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.237602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Leading scientists from the field of mitotic spindle research gathered from 24-27 March 2019 to participate in the first 'Mitotic spindle: From living and synthetic systems to theory' conference. This meeting was held in Split, Croatia, organized by Nenad Pavin (Faculty of Science, University of Zagreb) and Iva Tolić (Ruđer Bošković Institute, Zagreb). Around 75 participants presented the latest advances in mitotic spindle research, ranging from live-cell imaging, in vitro reconstitution experiments and theoretical models of spindle assembly. The meeting successfully created an environment for interesting scientific discussions, initiation of new collaborations and development of fresh ideas. In this report, we will highlight and summarize new data challenging the established models of spindle architecture, advances in spindle reconstitution assays, discovery of new regulators of spindle size and shape as well as theoretical approaches for investigating motor protein function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juraj Simunić
- Division of Molecular Biology, Ruđer Bošković Institute, Bijenička cesta 54, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Radhika Subramanian
- Department of Molecular Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA .,Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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21
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Prelogović M, Winters L, Milas A, Tolić IM, Pavin N. Pivot-and-bond model explains microtubule bundle formation. Phys Rev E 2019; 100:012403. [PMID: 31499770 DOI: 10.1103/physreve.100.012403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2017] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
During mitosis, microtubules form a spindle, which is responsible for proper segregation of the genetic material. A common structural element in a mitotic spindle is a parallel bundle, consisting of two or more microtubules growing from the same origin and held together by cross-linking proteins. An interesting question is what are the physical principles underlying the formation and stability of such microtubule bundles. Here we show, by introducing the pivot-and-bond model, that random angular movement of microtubules around the spindle pole and forces exerted by cross-linking proteins can explain the formation of microtubule bundles as observed in our experiments. The model predicts that stable parallel bundles can form in the presence of either passive crosslinkers or plus-end directed motors, but not minus-end directed motors. In the cases where bundles form, the time needed for their formation depends mainly on the concentration of cross-linking proteins and the angular diffusion of the microtubule. In conclusion, the angular motion drives the alignment of microtubules, which in turn allows the cross-linking proteins to connect the microtubules into a stable bundle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcel Prelogović
- Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Zagreb, Bijenička cesta 32, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Lora Winters
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Pfotenhauerstr. 108, 01307 Dresden, Germany
| | - Ana Milas
- Division of Molecular Biology, Ruđer Bošković Institute, Bijenička cesta 54, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Iva M Tolić
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Pfotenhauerstr. 108, 01307 Dresden, Germany
- Division of Molecular Biology, Ruđer Bošković Institute, Bijenička cesta 54, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Nenad Pavin
- Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Zagreb, Bijenička cesta 32, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
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22
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Winters L, Ban I, Prelogović M, Kalinina I, Pavin N, Tolić IM. Pivoting of microtubules driven by minus-end-directed motors leads to spindle assembly. BMC Biol 2019; 17:42. [PMID: 31122217 PMCID: PMC6533735 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-019-0656-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2019] [Accepted: 04/16/2019] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND At the beginning of mitosis, the cell forms a spindle made of microtubules and associated proteins to segregate chromosomes. An important part of spindle architecture is a set of antiparallel microtubule bundles connecting the spindle poles. A key question is how microtubules extending at arbitrary angles form an antiparallel interpolar bundle. RESULTS Here, we show in fission yeast that microtubules meet at an oblique angle and subsequently rotate into antiparallel alignment. Our live-cell imaging approach provides a direct observation of interpolar bundle formation. By combining experiments with theory, we show that microtubules from each pole search for those from the opposite pole by performing random angular movement. Upon contact, two microtubules slide sideways along each other in a directed manner towards the antiparallel configuration. We introduce the contour length of microtubules as a measure of activity of motors that drive microtubule sliding, which we used together with observation of Cut7/kinesin-5 motors and our theory to reveal the minus-end-directed motility of this motor in vivo. CONCLUSION Random rotational motion helps microtubules from the opposite poles to find each other and subsequent accumulation of motors allows them to generate forces that drive interpolar bundle formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lora Winters
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Pfotenhauerstr. 108, 01307, Dresden, Germany
| | - Ivana Ban
- Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Zagreb, Bijenička cesta 32, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Marcel Prelogović
- Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Zagreb, Bijenička cesta 32, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Iana Kalinina
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Pfotenhauerstr. 108, 01307, Dresden, Germany
| | - Nenad Pavin
- Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Zagreb, Bijenička cesta 32, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia.
| | - Iva M Tolić
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Pfotenhauerstr. 108, 01307, Dresden, Germany.
- Division of Molecular Biology, Ruđer Bošković Institute, Bijenička cesta 54, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia.
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