Gene therapy in the nervous system with superoxide dismutase

The neurotoxicity of iron, copper and cobalt in Parkinson's disease through ROS-mediated mechanisms

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disease with gradual loss of dopaminergic neurons. Despite extensive research in the past decades, the etiology of PD remains elusive. Nevertheless, multiple lines of evidence suggest that oxidative stress is one of the common causes in the pathogenesis of PD. It has also been suggested that heavy metal-associated oxidative stress may be implicated in the etiology and pathogenesis of PD. Here we review the roles of redox metals, including iron, copper and cobalt, in PD. Iron is a highly reactive element and deregulation of iron homeostasis is accompanied by concomitant oxidation processes in PD. Copper is a key metal in cell division process, and it has been shown to have an important role in neurodegenerative diseases such as PD. Cobalt induces the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and DNA damage in brain tissues.

SOD1 aggregation in astrocytes following ischemia/reperfusion injury: a role of NO-mediated S-nitrosylation of protein disulfide isomerase (PDI)

Background

Ubiquitinated-protein aggregates are implicated in cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury. The very presence of these ubiquitinated-protein aggregates is abnormal and seems to be disease-related. However, it is not clear what leads to aggregate formation and whether the aggregations represent a reaction to aggregate-mediated neurodegeneration.

Methods

To study the nitrosative stress-induced protein aggregation in cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury, we used primary astrocyte cultures as a cell model, and systematically examined their iNOS expression and consequent NO generation following oxygen glucose deprivation and reperfusion. The expression of protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) and copper-zinc superoxide dismutase (SOD1) were also examined, and the biochemical interaction between PDI and SOD1 was determined by immunoprecipitation. In addition, the levels of S-nitrosylated PDI in cultured astrocytes after oxygen glucose deprivation and reperfusion treatment were measured using the biotin-switch assay. The formation of ubiquitinated-protein aggregates was detected by immunoblot and immunofluorescence staining.

Results

Our data showed that the up-regulation of iNOS expression after oxygen glucose deprivation and reperfusion treatment led to excessive NO generation. Up-regulation of PDI and SOD1 was also identified in cultured astrocytes following oxygen glucose deprivation and reperfusion, and these two proteins were found to bind to each other. Furthermore, the increased nitrosative stress due to ischemia/reperfusion injury was highly associated with NO-induced S-nitrosylation of PDI, and this S-nitrosylation of PDI was correlated with the formation of ubiquitinated-protein aggregates; the levels of S-nitrosylated PDI increased in parallel with the formation of aggregates. When NO generation was pharmacologically inhibited by iNOS specific inhibitor 1400W, S-nitrosylation of PDI was significantly blocked. In addition, the formation of ubiquitinated-protein aggregates in cultured astrocytes following oxygen glucose deprivation and reperfusion was also suppressed by 1400W. Interestingly, these aggregates were colocalized with SOD1, which was found to co-immunoprecipitate with PDI.

Conclusions

NO-mediated S-nitrosylation of PDI may be involved in the formation of the SOD1-linked ubiquitinated-protein aggregates in cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury.

Herpes simplex virus type 1-based amplicon vectors for fundamental research in neurosciences and gene therapy of neurological diseases

Somatic manipulation of the nervous system without the involvement of the germinal line appears as a powerful counterpart of the transgenic strategy. The use of viral vectors to produce specific, transient and localized knockout, knockdown, ectopic expression or overexpression of a gene, leads to the possibility of analyzing both in vitro and in vivo molecular basis of neural function. In this approach, viral particles engineered to carry transgenic sequences are delivered into discrete brain regions, to transduce cells that will express the transgenic products. Amplicons are replication-incompetent helper-dependent vectors derived from herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1), with several advantages that potentiate their use in neurosciences: (1) minimal toxicity: amplicons do not encode any virus proteins, are neither toxic for the infected cells nor pathogenic for the inoculated animals and elicit low levels of adaptive immune responses; (2) extensive transgene capacity to carry up to 150-kb of foreign DNA; i.e., entire genes with regulatory sequences could be delivered; (3) widespread cellular tropism: amplicons can experimentally infect several cell types including glial cells, though naturally the virus infects mainly neurons and epithelial cells; (4) since the viral genome does not integrate into cellular chromosomes there is low probability to induce insertional mutagenesis. Recent investigations on gene transfer into the brain using these vectors, have focused on gene therapy of inherited genetic diseases affecting the nervous system, such as ataxias, or on neurodegenerative disorders using experimental models of Parkinson's or Alzheimer's disease. Another group of studies used amplicons to investigate complex neural functions such as neuroplasticity, anxiety, learning and memory. In this short review, we summarize recent data supporting the potential of HSV-1 based amplicon vector model for gene delivery and modulation of gene expression in primary cultures of neuronal cells and into the brain of living animals.

Cloning, expression, and characterization of thermotolerant manganese superoxide dismutase from Bacillus sp. MHS47

A superoxide dismutase gene from thermotolerant Bacillus sp. MHS47 (MnSOD47) was cloned, sequenced, and expressed. The gene has an open reading frame of 612 bp, corresponding to 203 deduced amino acids, with high homology to the amino acid sequences of B. thuringiensis (accession no. EEN01322), B. anthracis (accession no. NP_846724), B. cereus (accession no. ZP_04187911), B. weihenstephanensis (accession no. YP_001646918), and B. pseudomycoides. The conserved manganese-binding sites (H28, H83, D165, and H169) show that MnSOD47 has the specific characteristics of the manganese superoxide dismutase (MnSOD) enzymes. MnSOD47 expressed an enzyme with a molecular weight of approximately 22.65 kDa and a specific activity of 3537.75 U/mg. The enzyme is active in the pH range 7–8.5, with an optimum pH of 7.5, and at temperatures in the range 30–45 °C, with an optimum temperature of 37 °C. Tests of inhibitors and metal ions indicated that the enzyme activity is inhibited by sodium azide, but not by hydrogen peroxide or potassium cyanide. These data should benefit future studies of MnSODs in other microorganisms and the biotechnological production of MnSOD47, and could also be used to develop a biosensor for the detection of antioxidants and free radical activity. In the future, this basic knowledge could be applicable to the detection of cancer risks in humans and therapeutic treatments.

Neuroprotective effect of adenoviral catalase gene transfer in cortical neuronal cultures

Reduced availability of reactive oxygen species is a key component of neuroprotection against various toxic stimuli. Recently we showed that the hydrogen peroxide scavenger catalase plays a central role in delayed preconditioning induced by the mitochondrial ATP-sensitive potassium channel opener BMS-191095. The purpose of the experiments discussed here was to investigate the neuroprotective effect of catalase in vitro using a recombinant adenoviral catalase gene transfer protocol. To induce catalase overexpression, cultured rat cortical neurons were infected with the adenoviral vector Ad5CMVcatalase and control cells were incubated with Ad5CMVntLacZ for 24 h. Gene transfer effectively increased catalase protein levels and activity, but did not influence other antioxidants tested. Ad5CMVcatalase, with up to 10 plaque forming units (pfu) per neuron, did not affect cell viability under control conditions and did not protect against glutamate excitotoxicity or oxygen-glucose deprivation. In contrast, catalase overexpression conferred a dose-dependent protection against exposure to hydrogen peroxide (viability: control, 33.02+/-1.09%; LacZ 10 pfu/cell, 32.85+/-1.51%; catalase 1 pfu/cell, 62.09+/-4.17%*; catalase 2 pfu/cell, 98.71+/-3.35%*; catalase 10 pfu/cell, 99.68+/-1.99%*; *p<0.05 vs. control; mean+/-SEM). Finally, the protection could be antagonized using the catalase inhibitor 3-aminotriazole. Our results support the view that enhancing cellular antioxidant capacity may play a crucial role in neuroprotective strategies.

Increased expression of catalase and superoxide dismutase 2 reduces cone cell death in retinitis pigmentosa

Oxidative and nitrosative damage are major contributors to cone cell death in retinitis pigmentosa (RP). In this study, we explored the effects of augmenting components of the endogenous antioxidant defense system in models of RP, rd1, and rd10 mice. Unexpectedly, overexpression of superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1) in rd1 mice increased oxidative damage and accelerated cone cell death. With an elaborate mating scheme, genetically engineered rd10 mice with either inducible expression of SOD2, Catalase, or both in photoreceptor mitochondria were generated. Littermates with the same genetic background that did not have increased expression of SOD2 nor Catalase provided ideal controls. Coexpression of SOD2 and Catalase, but not either alone, significantly reduced oxidative damage in the retinas of postnatal day (P) 50 rd10 mice as measured by protein carbonyl content. Cone density was significantly greater in P50 rd10 mice with coexpression of SOD2 and Catalase together than rd10 mice that expressed SOD2 or Catalase alone, or expressed neither. Coexpression of SOD2 and Catalase in rd10 mice did not slow rod cell death. These data support the concept of bolstering the endogenous antioxidant defense system as a gene-based treatment strategy for RP, and also indicate that coexpression of multiple components may be needed.

Effects of overexpression of antioxidants on the release of cytochrome c and apoptosis-inducing factor in the model of ischemia

Apoptosis arises from neuronal damage following an ischemic insult. Apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF) is a protein released from mitochondria in response to pro-apoptotic signals which then translocates to the nucleus and triggers DNA fragmentation. In parallel with this, pro-apoptotic signals cause the release of cytochrome c from mitochondria, activating caspase-dependent apoptosis. During post-ischemic reperfusion, reactive oxygen species (ROS) are formed in excess in mitochondria and can play a role in initiating apoptosis. In cultures, ROS are formed during post oxygen glucose deprivation (OGD) normoxia/normoglycemia that is used as a model for ischemia. In this study, we delivered viral vectors to overexpress antioxidants (GPX, catalase, CuZnSOD, or MnSOD) in mixed cortical cultures, in order to investigate the effects of ROS-reduction on the release of cytochrome c and AIF. Overexpression of MnSOD, CuZnSOD, catalase or GPX all prevented AIF translocation from mitochondria to the nucleus. Potentially, this could reflect broadly non-specific protection due to reducing ROS load. Arguing against this, overexpression of the same antioxidants did not inhibit cytochrome c release. These findings suggest a specific interaction between ROS formation and the caspase-independent route of apoptosis.

Genetic and pharmacologic manipulation of oxidative stress after neonatal hypoxia-ischemia

Oxidative stress is a critical component of the injury response to hypoxia-ischemia (HI) in the neonatal brain, and this response is unique and at times paradoxical to that seen in the mature brain. Previously, we showed that copper-zinc superoxide-dismutase (SOD1) over-expression is not beneficial to the neonatal mouse brain with HI injury, unlike the adult brain with ischemic injury. However, glutathione peroxidase 1 (GPx1) over-expression is protective to the neonatal mouse brain with HI injury. To further test the hypothesis that an adequate supply of GPx is critical to protection from HI injury, we crossed SOD1 over-expressing mice (hSOD-tg) with GPx1 over-expressing mice (hGPx-tg). Resulting litters contained wild-type (wt), hGPx-tg, hSOD-tg and hybrid hGPx-tg/hSOD-tg pups, which were subjected to HI at P7. Confirming previous results, the hGPx-tg mice had reduced injury compared to both Wt and hSOD-tg littermates. Neonatal mice over-expressing both GPx1 and SOD1 also had less injury compared to wt or hSOD-tg alone. A result of oxidative stress after neonatal HI is a decrease in the concentration of reduced (i.e. antioxidant-active) glutathione (GSH). In this study, we tested the effect of systemic administration of alpha-lipoic acid on levels of GSH in the cortex after HI. Although GSH levels were restored by 24h after HI, injury was not reduced compared to vehicle-treated mice. We also tested two other pharmacological approaches to reducing oxidative stress in hSOD-tg and wild-type littermates. Both the specific inhibitor of neuronal nitric oxide synthase, 7-nitroindazole (7NI), and the spin-trapping agent alpha-phenyl-tert-butyl-nitrone (PBN) did not reduce HI injury, however. Taken together, these results imply that H2O2 is a critical component of neonatal HI injury, and GPx1 plays an important role in the defense against this H2O2 and is thereby neuroprotective.

HSV-1 amplicon vectors: a promising and versatile tool for gene delivery

Amplicons are defective and non-integrative vectors derived from herpes simplex virus type 1. They carry no virus genes in the vector genome and are, therefore, not toxic to the infected cells or pathogenic for the transduced organisms, making these vectors safe. In addition, the large transgenic capacity of amplicons, which allow delivery of < or = 150 Kbp of foreign DNA, make these vectors one of the most powerful, interesting and versatile gene delivery platforms. Here, the authors present recent technological developments that have significantly improved and extended the use of amplicons, both in cultured cells and in living organisms. In addition, this review illustrates the many possible applications that are presently being developed with amplicons and discuss the many difficulties still pending to be solved in order to achieve stable and physiologically regulated transgenic expression.

Gene therapy using SOD1 protects striatal neurons from experimental stroke

Reactive oxygen species contribute to neuronal death following cerebral ischemia. Prior studies using transgenic animals have demonstrated the neuroprotective effect of the antioxidant, copper/zinc superoxide dismutase (SOD1). In this study, we investigated whether SOD1 overexpression using gene therapy techniques in non-transgenic animals would increase neuronal survival. A neurotropic, herpes simplex virus-1 (HSV-1) vector containing the SOD1 gene was injected into the striatum either before or after transient focal cerebral ischemia. Striatal neuron survival at 2 days was improved by 52% when vector was delivered 12-15 h prior to ischemia and by 53% when vector delivery was delayed 2 h following ischemia. These data add to the growing literature, which suggests that an antioxidant approach, perhaps by employing gene therapy techniques, may be beneficial in the treatment of stroke.