The effect of zinc on glycinergic inhibitory postsynaptic currents in rat spinal dorsal horn neurons

The Free Zinc Concentration in the Synaptic Cleft of Artificial Glycinergic Synapses Rises to At least 1 μM

Zn²⁺ is concentrated into presynaptic vesicles at many central synapses and is released into the synaptic cleft by nerve terminal stimulation. There is strong evidence that synaptically released Zn²⁺ modulates glutamatergic neurotransmission, although there is debate concerning the peak concentration it reaches in the synaptic cleft. Glycine receptors (GlyRs), which mediate inhibitory neurotransmission in the spinal cord and brainstem, are potentiated by low nanomolar Zn²⁺ and inhibited by micromolar Zn²⁺. Mutations that selectively ablate Zn²⁺ potentiation result in hyperekplexia phenotypes suggesting that Zn²⁺ is a physiological regulator of glycinergic neurotransmission. There is, however, little evidence that Zn²⁺ is stored presynaptically at glycinergic terminals and an alternate possibility is that GlyRs are modulated by constitutively bound Zn²⁺. We sought to estimate the peak Zn²⁺ concentration in the glycinergic synaptic cleft as a means of evaluating whether it is likely to be synaptically released. We employed 'artificial' synapses because they permit the insertion of engineered α1β GlyRs with defined Zn²⁺ sensitivities into synapses. By comparing the effect of Zn²⁺ chelation on glycinergic IPSCs with the effects of defined Zn²⁺ and glycine concentrations applied rapidly to the same recombinant GlyRs in outside-out patches, we inferred that synaptic Zn²⁺ rises to at least 1 μM following a single presynaptic stimulation. Moreover, using the fast, high-affinity chelator, ZX1, we found no evidence for tonic Zn²⁺ bound constitutively to high affinity GlyR binding sites. We conclude that diffusible Zn²⁺ reaches 1 μM or higher and is therefore likely to be phasically released in artificial glycinergic synapses.

Structure and Pharmacologic Modulation of Inhibitory Glycine Receptors

Glycine receptors (GlyR) are inhibitory Cys-loop ion channels that contribute to the control of excitability along the central nervous system (CNS). GlyR are found in the spinal cord and brain stem, and more recently they were reported in higher regions of the CNS such as the hippocampus and nucleus accumbens. GlyR are involved in motor coordination, respiratory rhythms, pain transmission, and sensory processing, and they are targets for relevant physiologic and pharmacologic modulators. Several studies with protein crystallography and cryoelectron microscopy have shed light on the residues and mechanisms associated with the activation, blockade, and regulation of pentameric Cys-loop ion channels at the atomic level. Initial studies conducted on the extracellular domain of acetylcholine receptors, ion channels from prokaryote homologs-Erwinia chrysanthemi ligand-gated ion channel (ELIC), Gloeobacter violaceus ligand-gated ion channel (GLIC)-and crystallized eukaryotic receptors made it possible to define the overall structure and topology of the Cys-loop receptors. For example, the determination of pentameric GlyR structures bound to glycine and strychnine have contributed to visualizing the structural changes implicated in the transition between the open and closed states of the Cys-loop receptors. In this review, we summarize how the new information obtained in functional, mutagenesis, and structural studies have contributed to a better understanding of the function and regulation of GlyR.

Ethanol effects on glycinergic transmission: From molecular pharmacology to behavior responses

It is well accepted that ethanol is able to produce major health and economic problems associated to its abuse. Because of its intoxicating and addictive properties, it is necessary to analyze its effect in the central nervous system. However, we are only now learning about the mechanisms controlling the modification of important membrane proteins such as ligand-activated ion channels by ethanol. Furthermore, only recently are these effects being correlated to behavioral changes. Current studies show that the glycine receptor (GlyR) is a susceptible target for low concentrations of ethanol (5-40mM). GlyRs are relevant for the effects of ethanol because they are found in the spinal cord and brain stem where they primarily express the α1 subunit. More recently, the presence of GlyRs was described in higher regions, such as the hippocampus and nucleus accumbens, with a prevalence of α2/α3 subunits. Here, we review data on the following aspects of ethanol effects on GlyRs: (1) direct interaction of ethanol with amino acids in the extracellular or transmembrane domains, and indirect mechanisms through the activation of signal transduction pathways; (2) analysis of α2 and α3 subunits having different sensitivities to ethanol which allows the identification of structural requirements for ethanol modulation present in the intracellular domain and C-terminal region; (3) Genetically modified knock-in mice for α1 GlyRs that have an impaired interaction with G protein and demonstrate reduced ethanol sensitivity without changes in glycinergic transmission; and (4) GlyRs as potential therapeutic targets.

The GLRA1 missense mutation W170S associates lack of Zn2+ potentiation with human hyperekplexia

Hyperekplexia is a neurological disorder associated primarily with mutations in the α1 subunit of glycine receptors (GlyRs) that lead to dysfunction of glycinergic inhibitory transmission. To date, most of the identified mutations result in disruption of surface expression or altered channel properties of α1-containing GlyRs. Little evidence has emerged to support an involvement of allosteric GlyR modulation in human hyperekplexia. Here, we report that recombinant human GlyRs containing α1 or α1β subunits with a missense mutation in the α1 subunit (W170S), previously identified from familial hyperekplexia, caused remarkably reduced potentiation and enhanced inhibition by Zn(2+). Interestingly, mutant α1(W170S)β GlyRs displayed no significant changes in potency or maximum response to glycine, taurine, or β-alanine. By temporally separating the potentiating and the inhibitory effects of Zn(2+), we found that the enhancement of Zn(2+) inhibition resulted from a loss of Zn(2+)-mediated potentiation. The W170S mutation on the background of H107N, which was previously reported to selectively disrupt Zn(2+) inhibition, showed remarkable attenuation of Zn(2+)-mediated potentiation and thus indicated that W170 is an important residue for the Zn(2+)-mediated GlyR potentiation. Moreover, overexpressing the α1(W170S) subunit in cultured rat neurons confirmed the results from heterologous expression. Together, our results reveal a new zinc potentiation site on α1 GlyRs and a strong link between Zn(2+) modulation and human disease.

Inter-regional contribution of enhanced activity of the primary somatosensory cortex to the anterior cingulate cortex accelerates chronic pain behavior

Multiple cortical areas are involved in pain processing, including the primary somatosensory cortex (S1) and the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). Although accumulations of evidence suggest that the S1 activity increases under chronic pain conditions, whether plastic change occurs or not within the S1, and whether and how the plastic change contributes to chronic pain behavior, is unknown. Here, we provide the first evidence that intra-regional remodeling within the mouse S1 accelerates chronic pain behavior by modulating neuronal activity in the ACC, one of the important cortical areas for chronic pain. Using two-photon Ca(2+) imaging, we found that the spontaneous activity of layer 2/3 neurons in the S1 and then response to sensory and layer 4 stimulations increased under chronic pain conditions. In addition, pharmacological attenuation and facilitation of S1 activity attenuated and facilitated the chronic pain behavior, respectively. Furthermore, electrical response of the ACC to peripheral stimulation successfully correlated with S1 neuronal activity, and inhibition of ACC activity alleviated the mechanical allodynia. The present results will provide development of efficient therapeutic strategies against chronic pain by focusing on the S1 and ACC.