CRBL cells: establishment, characterization and susceptibility to prion infection

Genetically engineered cellular models of prion propagation

For over three decades, cultured cells have been a useful tool for dissecting the molecular details of prion replication and the identification of candidate therapeutics for prion disease. A major issue limiting the translatability of these studies has been the inability to reliably propagate disease-relevant, non-mouse strains of prions in cells relevant to prion pathogenesis. In recent years, fueled by advances in gene editing technology, it has become possible to propagate prions from hamsters, cervids, and sheep in immortalized cell lines originating from the central nervous system. In particular, the use of CRISPR-Cas9-mediated gene editing to generate versions of prion-permissive cell lines that lack endogenous PrP expression has provided a blank canvas upon which re-expression of PrP leads to species-matched susceptibility to prion infection. When coupled with the ability to propagate prions in cells or organoids derived from stem cells, these next-generation cellular models should provide an ideal paradigm for identifying small molecules and other biological therapeutics capable of interfering with prion replication in animal and human prion disorders. In this review, we summarize recent advances that have widened the spectrum of prion strains that can be propagated in cultured cells and cutting-edge tissue-based models.

From Cell Culture to Organoids-Model Systems for Investigating Prion Strain Characteristics

Prion diseases are the hallmark protein folding neurodegenerative disease. Their transmissible nature has allowed for the development of many different cellular models of disease where prion propagation and sometimes pathology can be induced. This review examines the range of simple cell cultures to more complex neurospheres, organoid, and organotypic slice cultures that have been used to study prion disease pathogenesis and to test therapeutics. We highlight the advantages and disadvantages of each system, giving special consideration to the importance of strains when choosing a model and when interpreting results, as not all systems propagate all strains, and in some cases, the technique used, or treatment applied, can alter the very strain properties being studied.

Cellular models for discovering prion disease therapeutics: Progress and challenges

Prions, which cause fatal neurodegenerative disorders such as Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, are misfolded and infectious protein aggregates. Currently, there are no treatments available to halt or even delay the progression of prion disease in the brain. The infectious nature of prions has resulted in animal paradigms that accurately recapitulate all aspects of prion disease, and these have proven to be instrumental for testing the efficacy of candidate therapeutics. Nonetheless, infection of cultured cells with prions provides a much more powerful system for identifying molecules capable of interfering with prion propagation. Certain lines of cultured cells can be chronically infected with various types of mouse prions, and these models have been used to unearth candidate anti-prion drugs that are at least partially efficacious when administered to prion-infected rodents. However, these studies have also revealed that not all types of prions are equal, and that drugs active against mouse prions are not necessarily effective against prions from other species. Despite some recent progress, the number of cellular models available for studying non-mouse prions remains limited. In particular, human prions have proven to be particularly challenging to propagate in cultured cells, which has severely hindered the discovery of drugs for Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. In this review, we summarize the cellular models that are presently available for discovering and testing drugs capable of blocking the propagation of prions and highlight challenges that remain on the path towards developing therapies for prion disease.

Cell biology of prion infection

The development of multiple cell culture models of prion infection over the last two decades has led to a significant increase in our understanding of how prions infect cells. In particular, new techniques to distinguish exogenous from endogenous prions have allowed us for the first time to look in depth at the earliest stages of prion infection through to the establishment of persistent infection. These studies have shown that prions can infect multiple cell types, both neuronal and nonneuronal. Once in contact with the cell, they are rapidly taken up via multiple endocytic pathways. After uptake, the initial replication of prions occurs almost immediately on the plasma membrane and within multiple endocytic compartments. Following this acute stage of prion replication, persistent prion infection may or may not be established. Establishment of a persistent prion infection in cells appears to depend upon the achievement of a delicate balance between the rate of prion replication and degradation, the rate of cell division, and the efficiency of prion spread from cell to cell. Overall, cell culture models have shown that prion infection of the cell is a complex and variable process which can involve multiple cellular pathways and compartments even within a single cell.

Evaluation of infective property of recombinant prion protein amyloids in cultured cells overexpressing cellular prion protein

Misfolded isoform of prion protein (PrP), termed scrapie PrP (PrP(Sc)), tends to aggregate into various fibril forms. Previously, we reported various conditions that affect aggregation of recombinant PrP into amyloids. Because amyloidogenesis of PrP is closely associated with transmissible spongiform encephalopathies such as Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in humans, we investigated infectivity of recombinant PrP amyloids generated in vitro. Using cultured cell lines which overexpress cellular PrP of different species, we measured the level of de novo synthesized PrP(Sc) in cells inoculated with recombinant mouse PrP amyloids. While PrP-overexpressing cells were susceptible to mouse-adapted scrapie prions used as the positive control, demonstrating the species barrier effect, infection with amyloids made of truncated recombinant PrP (PrP[89-230]) failed to form and propagate PrP(Sc) even in the cells that express mouse cellular PrP. This suggests that infectivity of PrP amyloids generated in vitro is different from that of natural prions. Recombinant PrP (89-230) amyloids tested in the current study retain no or a minute level, if any, of prion infectivity.

Small RNA deep sequencing reveals a distinct miRNA signature released in exosomes from prion-infected neuronal cells

Prion diseases are transmissible neurodegenerative disorders affecting both humans and animals. The cellular prion protein, PrP^C, and the abnormal infectious form, PrP^Sc, are found associated with exosomes, which are small 50–130 nm vesicles released from cells. Exosomes also contain microRNAs (miRNAs), a class of non-coding RNA, and have been utilized to identify miRNA signatures for diagnosis of disease. While some miRNAs are deregulated in prion-infected brain tissue, the role of miRNA in circulating exosomes released during prion disease is unknown. Here, we investigated the miRNA profile in exosomes released from prion-infected neuronal cells. We performed the first small RNA deep sequencing study of exosomes and demonstrated that neuronal exosomes contain a diverse range of RNA species including retroviral RNA repeat regions, messenger RNA fragments, transfer RNA fragments, non-coding RNA, small nuclear RNA, small nucleolar RNA, small cytoplasmic RNA, silencing RNA as well as known and novel candidate miRNA. Significantly, we show that exosomes released by prion-infected neuronal cells have increased let-7b, let-7i, miR-128a, miR-21, miR-222, miR-29b, miR-342-3p and miR-424 levels with decreased miR-146 a levels compared to non-infected exosomes. Overall, these results demonstrate that circulating exosomes released during prion infection have a distinct miRNA signature that can be utilized for diagnosis and understanding pathogenic mechanisms in prion disease.

Prion inhibition with multivalent PrPSc binding compounds

Quinacrine and related heterocyclic compounds have antiprion activity. Since the infectious pathogen of prion diseases is composed of multimeric PrP(Sc) assemblies, we hypothesized that this antiprion property could be enhanced by attaching multiple quinacrine-derived chloroquinoline or acridine moieties to a scaffold. In addition to exploring Congo red dye and tetraphenylporphyrin tetracarboxylic acid scaffolds, which already possess intrinsic prion-binding ability; trimesic acid was used in this role. In practice, Congo red itself could not be modified with chloroquinoline or acridine units, and a modified dicarboxyl analog was also unreactive. The latter also lacked antiprion activity in infected cultured cells. While addition of chloroquinoline to a tetraphenylporphyrin tetracarboxylic acid scaffold resulted in some reduction of PrP(Sc), moieties attached to a trimesic acid scaffold exhibited sub-micromolar IC(50)'s as well as a toxicity profile superior to quinacrine. Antiprion activity of these molecules was influenced by the length, polarity, and rigidity associated with the variable linear or cyclic polyamine tethers, and in some instances was modulated by host-cell and/or strain type. Unexpectedly, several compounds in our series increased PrP(Sc) levels. Overall, inhibitory and enhancing properties of these multivalent compounds offer new avenues for structure-based investigation of prion biology.

In vitro amplification of misfolded prion protein using lysate of cultured cells

Protein misfolding cyclic amplification (PMCA) recapitulates the prion protein (PrP) conversion process under cell-free conditions. PMCA was initially established with brain material and then with further simplified constituents such as partially purified and recombinant PrP. However, availability of brain material from some species or brain material from animals with certain mutations or polymorphisms within the PrP gene is often limited. Moreover, preparation of native PrP from mammalian cells and tissues, as well as recombinant PrP from bacterial cells, involves time-consuming purification steps. To establish a convenient and versatile PMCA procedure unrestricted to the availability of substrate sources, we attempted to conduct PMCA with the lysate of cells that express cellular PrP (PrP^C). PrP^Sc was efficiently amplified with lysate of rabbit kidney epithelial RK13 cells stably transfected with the mouse or Syrian hamster PrP gene. Furthermore, PMCA was also successful with lysate of other established cell lines of neuronal or non-neuronal origins. Together with the data showing that the abundance of PrP^C in cell lysate was a critical factor to drive efficient PrP^Sc amplification, our results demonstrate that cell lysate in which PrP^C is present abundantly serves as an excellent substrate source for PMCA.

The suppression of prion propagation using poly-L-lysine by targeting plasminogen that stimulates prion protein conversion

Poly-l-lysine (PLL), a homopolymer of amino acid l-lysine (LL), has been frequently used for drug delivery. Here, we report that PLL is an effective agent to inhibit propagation of prions that cause fatal and incurable neurologic disorders in humans and animals, termed prion diseases. In our recent investigation on prion propagation facilitated by conversion of the cellular prion protein (PrP) to the misfolded, disease-associated PrP (PrP(Sc)), we demonstrated that plasminogen stimulates PrP conversion as a cellular cofactor. In the current study, we targeted plasminogen using PLL and assessed its anti-prion efficacy. The results showed that PLL strongly inhibited PrP(Sc) propagation in the cell-free, cell culture, and mouse models of prion disease. These results confirm the role of plasminogen in PrP(Sc) propagation, validates plasminogen as a therapeutic target to combat prion disease, and suggests PLL as a potential anti-prion agent. Therefore, our study represents a proof-of-concept that targeting plasminogen, a cofactor for PrP conversion, using PLL results in suppression of prion propagation, which represents a successful translation of our understanding on details of prion propagation into a potential therapeutic strategy for prion diseases.

Plasminogen stimulates propagation of protease-resistant prion protein in vitro

To clarify the role of plasminogen as a cofactor for prion propagation, we conducted functional assays using a cell-free prion protein (PrP) conversion assay termed protein misfolding cyclic amplification (PMCA) and prion-infected cell lines. Here, we report that plasminogen stimulates propagation of the protease-resistant scrapie PrP (PrP(Sc)). Compared to control PMCA conducted without plasminogen, addition of plasminogen in PMCA using wild-type brain material significantly increased PrP conversion, with an EC(50) = ∼56 nM. PrP conversion in PMCA was substantially less efficient with plasminogen-deficient brain material than with wild-type material. The activity stimulating PrP conversion was specific for plasminogen and conserved in its kringle domains. Such activity was abrogated by modification of plasminogen structure and interference of PrP-plasminogen interaction. Kinetic analysis of PrP(Sc) generation demonstrated that the presence of plasminogen in PMCA enhanced the PrP(Sc) production rate to ∼0.97 U/μl/h and reduced turnover time to ∼1 h compared to those (∼0.4 U/μl/h and ∼2.5 h) obtained without supplementation. Furthermore, as observed in PMCA, plasminogen and kringles promoted PrP(Sc) propagation in ScN2a and Elk 21(+) cells. Our results demonstrate that plasminogen functions in stimulating conversion processes and represents the first cellular protein cofactor that enhances the hypothetical mechanism of prion propagation.

Utility of RNAi-mediated prnp gene silencing in neuroblastoma cells permanently infected by prions: potentials and limitations

Prion diseases are incurable, transmissible neurodegenerative disorders in humans and animals. Because the disease-associated isoform of prion protein, PrP(Sc), is conformationally converted from cellular prion protein, PrP(C), knockdown of PrP(C) expression by RNA interference (RNAi) implicates therapy for prion diseases. In this study, introduction of small interfering (si) and small hairpin (sh) RNAs targeting the prion protein gene (prnp) transcripts triggered specific gene silencing and reduced the PrP(C) level in both prion-free and -infected neuroblastoma cell lines. Furthermore, this approach suppressed PrP(Sc) formation and ultimately eliminated PrP(Sc) from prion-infected cell lines. However, prolonged culture of cured cells resulted in reappearance of PrP(Sc) in the cell population, presumably by de novo PrP(Sc) formation from residual PrP(C) uncontrolled by RNAi and PrP(Sc) remained under the detection limit. Protein misfolding cyclic amplification assays further confirmed that lysate of cured cells was sufficient to support PrP(Sc) propagation. Our data not only suggest a potential treatment option but also implicate a caveat for using an RNAi approach for prion diseases. These findings provide critical information required to advance RNAi-based prevention and therapy for prion diseases of humans and animals.

Enhancement of protein misfolding cyclic amplification by using concentrated cellular prion protein source

Protein misfolding cyclic amplification (PMCA) is a cell-free assay mimicking the prion replication process. However, constraints affecting PMCA have not been well-defined. Although cellular prion protein (PrP(C)) is required for prion replication, the influence of PrP(C) abundance on PMCA has not been assessed. Here, we show that PMCA was enhanced by using mouse brain material in which PrP(C) was overexpressed. Tg(MoPrP)4112 mice overexpressing PrP(C) supported more sensitive and efficient PMCA than wild type mice. As brain homogenate of Tg(MoPrP)4112 mice was diluted with PrP(C)-deficient brain material, PMCA became less robust. Our studies suggest that abundance of PrP(C) is a determinant that directs enhancement of PMCA. PMCA established here will contribute to optimizing conditions to enhance PrP(Sc) amplification by using concentrated PrP(C) source and expands the use of this methodology.