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Thongwong P, Wattanathorn J, Thukhammee W, Tiamkao S. The potential role of the novel orodispersible film from rice polymer loaded with silkworm pupae hydrolysate and the combined extract of holy basil and ginger for the management of stroke with stress. Biomaterials 2023; 299:122175. [PMID: 37262936 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2023.122175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2022] [Revised: 04/02/2023] [Accepted: 05/20/2023] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The prevalence of stroke under stress conditions is rising and the severity of stroke is increasing. Owing to the limitation of the current therapeutic strategy, a novel effective strategy for treating this condition is needed. In this study, we explored the neuroprotective effect of an orodispersible film derived from a rice polymer loaded with silkworm pupae and the combined extract of holy basil and ginger (JP1). Male Wistar rats weighing 200-250 g were administered JP1 at the doses of 1, 10, and 100 mg/kg BW 45 min prior to an exposure to a 6-h immobilization stress for 14 days. Permanent, occlusion of the right middle cerebral artery (MCAO) was performed, and JP1 was administered continually for 21 days after MCAO. Assessments of the brain infarction volume, oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis in the cerebral cortex were carried out 24 h after MCAO. Neurological severity scores were also determined for the rats every 7 days after MCAO until the end of the study period. The results clearly showed that all doses of JP1 decreased the brain infarct volume, oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis and improved neurological deficits. Therefore, JP1 is a potential novel neuroprotective supplement for combating ischemic stroke under stress conditions. However, a clinical trial is essential to confirm this beneficial effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Putthiwat Thongwong
- Department of Physiology and Graduate School (Neuroscience Program), Faculty of Medicine, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, 40002, Thailand.
| | - Jintanaporn Wattanathorn
- Integrative Complementary Alternative Medicine Research and Development Center in Research Institute for Human High Performance and Health Promotion, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, 40002, Thailand; Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand.
| | - Wipawee Thukhammee
- Integrative Complementary Alternative Medicine Research and Development Center in Research Institute for Human High Performance and Health Promotion, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, 40002, Thailand; Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand.
| | - Somsak Tiamkao
- Integrative Complementary Alternative Medicine Research and Development Center in Research Institute for Human High Performance and Health Promotion, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, 40002, Thailand; Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand.
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Colàs-Campàs L, Farre J, Mauri-Capdevila G, Molina-Seguín J, Aymerich N, Ois Á, Roquer J, Tur S, García-Carreira MDC, Martí-Fàbregas J, Cruz-Culebras A, Segura T, Arque G, Purroy F. Inflammatory Response of Ischemic Tolerance in Circulating Plasma: Preconditioning-Induced by Transient Ischemic Attack (TIA) Phenomena in Acute Ischemia Patients (AIS). Front Neurol 2020; 11:552470. [PMID: 33192985 PMCID: PMC7658473 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2020.552470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2020] [Accepted: 09/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Ischemic tolerance (IT) refers to a state where cells are resistant to the damaging effects caused by periods of ischemia. In a clinical scenario, the IT phenomenon would be activated by a recent transient ischemic attack (TIA) before an ischemic stroke (IS). The characterization of inflammatory protein expression patterns will contribute to improved understanding of IT. Methods: A total of 477 IS patients from nine hospitals, recruited between January 2011 and January 2016, were included in the current study and divided in three groups: 438 (91.9%) patients without previous TIA (group 1), 22 (4.6%) patients who suffered TIA 24 h before IS (group 2), and 17 (3.5%) patients who suffered TIA between 24 h and 7 days prior to IS (group 3). An inflammatory biomarker panel (IL-6, NT-proBNP, hsCRP, hs-Troponin, NSE, and S-100b) on plasma and a cytokine antibody array was performed to achieve the preconditioning signature potentially induced by TIA phenomena. Primary outcome was modified rankin scale (mRs) score at 90 days. Results: Recent previous TIA was associated with better clinical outcome at 90 days (median mRS of group 1: 2.0 [1.0–4.0]; group 2: 2.0 [0.0–3.0]; group 3: 1.0 [0–2.5]; p = 0.086) and smaller brain lesion (group 1: 3.7 [0.7–18.3]; group 2: 0.8 [0.3–8.9]; group 3: 0.6 [0.1–5.5] mL; p = 0.006). All inflammation biomarkers were down regulated in the groups of recent TIA prior to IS compared to those who did not suffer a TIA events. Moreover, a cytokine antibody array revealed 30 differentially expressed proteins between the three groups. Among them, HRG1-alpha (Fold change 74.4 between group 1 and 2; 74.2 between group 1 and 3) and MAC-1 (Fold change 0.05 between group 1 and 2; 0.06 between group 1 and 3) expression levels would better stratify patients with TIA 7 days before IS. These two proteins showed an earlier inflammation profile that was not detectable by the biomarker panel. Conclusion: Inflammatory pathways were activated by transient ischemic attack, however the period of time between this event and a further ischemic stroke could be determined by a protein signature that would contribute to define the role of ischemic tolerance induced by TIA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Colàs-Campàs
- Clinical Neurosciences Group, Institut de Recerca Biomèdica de Lleida, Lleida, Spain
| | - Joan Farre
- Clinical Neurosciences Group, Institut de Recerca Biomèdica de Lleida, Lleida, Spain.,Medical Laboratory, Hospital Universitari Arnau de Vilanova, Lleida, Spain
| | - Gerard Mauri-Capdevila
- Clinical Neurosciences Group, Institut de Recerca Biomèdica de Lleida, Lleida, Spain.,Stroke Unit, Department of Neurology, Hospital Universitari Arnau de Vilanova, Lleida, Spain
| | - Jessica Molina-Seguín
- Clinical Neurosciences Group, Institut de Recerca Biomèdica de Lleida, Lleida, Spain
| | | | | | | | - Silvia Tur
- Hospital Son Espases, Palma de Mallorca, Spain
| | | | | | | | - Tomás Segura
- Complejo Hospitalario Universitario de Albacete, Albacete, Spain
| | - Gloria Arque
- Clinical Neurosciences Group, Institut de Recerca Biomèdica de Lleida, Lleida, Spain
| | - Francisco Purroy
- Clinical Neurosciences Group, Institut de Recerca Biomèdica de Lleida, Lleida, Spain.,Stroke Unit, Department of Neurology, Hospital Universitari Arnau de Vilanova, Lleida, Spain
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Çalışkan G, Raza SA, Demiray YE, Kul E, Sandhu KV, Stork O. Depletion of dietary phytoestrogens reduces hippocampal plasticity and contextual fear memory stability in adult male mouse. Nutr Neurosci 2019; 24:951-962. [PMID: 31814540 DOI: 10.1080/1028415x.2019.1698826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Introduction: Phytoestrogens are non-steroidal estrogen analogues and are found primarily in soy products. They have received increasing attention as dietary supplements for estrogen deficiency and as modulators of endogenous estrogen functions, including cognition and emotion. In addition to modifying the levels of circulating sex hormones, phytoestrogens also exert direct effects on estrogen and androgen receptors in the brain and thus effectively modulate the neural circuit functions.Objective: The aim of this study was to investigate the long-term effects of low phytoestrogen intake (∼6 weeks) on the hippocampal plasticity and hippocampus-dependent memory formation in the adult C57BL/6 male mice.Methods and Results: In comparison to mice on a diet with normal phytoestrogen content, mice on low phytoestrogen diet showed a significant reduction in the phosphorylation of NR2B subunit, a molecular correlate of plasticity in the Schaffer collateral-CA1 synapse. We observed a profound decrease in long-term potentiation (LTP) in the ventral hippocampus, whereas no effect on plasticity was evident in its dorsal portion. Furthermore, we demonstrated that acute perfusion of slices with an estrogen analogue equol, an isoflovane metabolized from daidzein produced by the bacterial flora in the gut, was able to rescue the observed LTP deficit. Examining potential behavioral correlates of the plasticity attenuation, we found that mice on phytoestrogen-free diet display decreased contextual fear memory at remote but not at recent time points after training.Conclusions: Our data suggests that nutritional phytoestrogens have profound effects on the plasticity in the ventral hippocampus and ventral hippocampus-dependent memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gürsel Çalışkan
- Institute of Biology, Otto-von-Guericke-University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany.,Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences (CBBS), Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Syed Ahsan Raza
- Institute of Biology, Otto-von-Guericke-University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany.,Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences (CBBS), Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Yunus E Demiray
- Institute of Biology, Otto-von-Guericke-University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Emre Kul
- Institute of Biology, Otto-von-Guericke-University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Kiran V Sandhu
- Institute of Biology, Otto-von-Guericke-University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany.,APC Microbiome Ireland, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - Oliver Stork
- Institute of Biology, Otto-von-Guericke-University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany.,Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences (CBBS), Magdeburg, Germany
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Selvaraj UM, Zuurbier KR, Whoolery CW, Plautz EJ, Chambliss KL, Kong X, Zhang S, Kim SH, Katzenellenbogen BS, Katzenellenbogen JA, Mineo C, Shaul PW, Stowe AM. Selective Nonnuclear Estrogen Receptor Activation Decreases Stroke Severity and Promotes Functional Recovery in Female Mice. Endocrinology 2018; 159:3848-3859. [PMID: 30256928 PMCID: PMC6203892 DOI: 10.1210/en.2018-00600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2018] [Accepted: 09/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Estrogens provide neuroprotection in animal models of stroke, but uterotrophic effects and cancer risk limit translation. Classic estrogen receptors (ERs) serve as transcription factors, whereas nonnuclear ERs govern numerous cell processes and exert beneficial cardiometabolic effects without uterine or breast cancer growth in mice. Here, we determined how nonnuclear ER stimulation with pathway-preferential estrogen (PaPE)-1 affects stroke outcome in mice. Ovariectomized female mice received vehicle, estradiol (E2), or PaPE-1 before and after transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAo). Lesion severity was assessed with MRI, and poststroke motor function was evaluated through 2 weeks after tMCAo. Circulating, spleen, and brain leukocyte subpopulations were quantified 3 days after tMCAo by flow cytometry, and neurogenesis and angiogenesis were evaluated histologically 2 weeks after tMCAo. Compared with vehicle, E2 and PaPE-1 reduced infarct volumes at 3 days after tMCAo, though only PaPE-1 reduced leukocyte infiltration into the ischemic brain. Unlike E2, PaPE-1 had no uterotrophic effect. Both interventions had negligible effect on long-term poststroke neuronal or vascular plasticity. All mice displayed a decline in motor performance at 2 days after tMCAo, and vehicle-treated mice did not improve thereafter. In contrast, E2 and PaPE-1 treatment afforded functional recovery at 6 days after tMCAo and beyond. Thus, the selective activation of nonnuclear ER by PaPE-1 decreased stroke severity and improved functional recovery in mice without undesirable uterotrophic effects. The beneficial effects of PaPE-1 are also associated with attenuated neuroinflammation in the brain. PaPE-1 and similar molecules may warrant consideration as efficacious ER modulators providing neuroprotection without detrimental effects on the uterus or cancer risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Uma Maheswari Selvaraj
- Department of Neurology and Neurotherapeutics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas
| | - Kielen R Zuurbier
- Department of Neurology and Neurotherapeutics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas
| | - Cody W Whoolery
- Department of Neurology and Neurotherapeutics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas
| | - Erik J Plautz
- Department of Neurology and Neurotherapeutics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas
| | - Ken L Chambliss
- Center for Pulmonary and Vascular Biology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas
| | - Xiangmei Kong
- Department of Neurology and Neurotherapeutics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas
| | - Shanrong Zhang
- Advanced Imaging Research Center, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas
| | - Sung Hoon Kim
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois
| | - Benita S Katzenellenbogen
- Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois
| | | | - Chieko Mineo
- Center for Pulmonary and Vascular Biology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas
| | - Philip W Shaul
- Center for Pulmonary and Vascular Biology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas
- Correspondence: Philip W. Shaul, MD, Center for Pulmonary and Vascular Biology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, Texas 75390. ; or Ann M. Stowe, PhD, Department of Neurology, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, 741 South Limestone, Lexington, Kentucky 40536. E-mail:
| | - Ann M Stowe
- Department of Neurology and Neurotherapeutics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas
- Department of Neurology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky
- Correspondence: Philip W. Shaul, MD, Center for Pulmonary and Vascular Biology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, Texas 75390. ; or Ann M. Stowe, PhD, Department of Neurology, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, 741 South Limestone, Lexington, Kentucky 40536. E-mail:
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Rehni AK, Liu A, Perez-Pinzon MA, Dave KR. Diabetic aggravation of stroke and animal models. Exp Neurol 2017; 292:63-79. [PMID: 28274862 PMCID: PMC5400679 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2017.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2016] [Revised: 02/03/2017] [Accepted: 03/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Cerebral ischemia in diabetics results in severe brain damage. Different animal models of cerebral ischemia have been used to study the aggravation of ischemic brain damage in the diabetic condition. Since different disease conditions such as diabetes differently affect outcome following cerebral ischemia, the Stroke Therapy Academic Industry Roundtable (STAIR) guidelines recommends use of diseased animals for evaluating neuroprotective therapies targeted to reduce cerebral ischemic damage. The goal of this review is to discuss the technicalities and pros/cons of various animal models of cerebral ischemia currently being employed to study diabetes-related ischemic brain damage. The rational use of such animal systems in studying the disease condition may better help evaluate novel therapeutic approaches for diabetes related exacerbation of ischemic brain damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashish K Rehni
- Cerebral Vascular Disease Research Laboratories, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA; Department of Neurology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA
| | - Allen Liu
- Cerebral Vascular Disease Research Laboratories, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA; Department of Neurology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA
| | - Miguel A Perez-Pinzon
- Cerebral Vascular Disease Research Laboratories, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA; Department of Neurology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA; Neuroscience Program, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA
| | - Kunjan R Dave
- Cerebral Vascular Disease Research Laboratories, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA; Department of Neurology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA; Neuroscience Program, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA.
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Jung ME, Metzger DB. A sex difference in oxidative stress and behavioral suppression induced by ethanol withdrawal in rats. Behav Brain Res 2016; 314:199-214. [PMID: 27503149 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2016.07.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2016] [Revised: 07/25/2016] [Accepted: 07/30/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Ethanol withdrawal (EW) is referred to the abrupt termination of long-term heavy drinking, and provokes oxidative brain damage. Here, we investigated whether the cerebellum and hippocampus of female rats are less affected by prooxidant EW than male rats due to the antioxidant effect of 17β-estradiol (E2). Female and male rats received a four-week ethanol diet and three-week withdrawal per cycle for two cycles. Some female rats were ovariectomized with E2 or antioxidant (Vitamin E+Co-Q10) treatment. Measurements were cerebellum (Rotarod) and hippocampus (water-maze)-related behaviors, oxidative markers (O2(-), malondialdehyde, protein carbonyls), mitochondrial membrane swelling, and a key mitochondrial enzyme, cytochrome c oxidase (CcO). Separately, HT22 (hippocampal) cells were subjected to ethanol-exposure and withdrawal for two cycles to assess the effect of a CcO inhibitor on E2's protection for mitochondrial respiration and cell viability. Ethanol-withdrawn female rats showed a smaller increase in oxidative markers in cerebellum and hippocampus than male rats, and E2 treatment decreased the oxidative markers. Compared to male counterparts, ethanol-withdrawn female rats showed better Rotarod but poorer water-maze performance, accompanied by more severe mitochondrial membrane swelling and CcO suppression in hippocampus. E2 or antioxidant treatment improved Rotarod but not water-maze performance. In the presence of a CcO inhibitor, E2 treatment failed to protect mitochondrial respiration and cell viability from EW. These data suggest that antioxidant E2 contributes to smaller oxidative stress in ethanol-withdrawn female than male rats. They also suggest that EW-induced severe mitochondrial damage in hippocampus may blunt E2's antioxidant protection for hippocampus-related behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marianna E Jung
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of North Texas Health Science Center at Fort Worth, 3500 Camp Bowie Blvd., Fort Worth, TX 76107-2699, USA.
| | - Daniel B Metzger
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of North Texas Health Science Center at Fort Worth, 3500 Camp Bowie Blvd., Fort Worth, TX 76107-2699, USA
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Uzum G, Bahçekapılı N, Baltaci A, Mogulkoc R, Ziylan Y. Pre- and post-estrogen administration in global cerebral ischemia reduces blood-brain barrier breakdown in ovariectomized rats. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 102:60-6. [DOI: 10.1556/aphysiol.102.2015.1.6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Gervais NJ, Jacob S, Brake WG, Mumby DG. Modulatory effect of 17-β estradiol on performance of ovariectomized rats on the Shock-Probe test. Physiol Behav 2014; 131:129-35. [PMID: 24768650 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2014.04.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2014] [Revised: 04/07/2014] [Accepted: 04/14/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
17-β estradiol (E2) has been shown to modulate fear conditioning by influencing freezing behavior following re-exposure to either the conditioning context or a cue associated with shock. Fear-related behaviors other than freezing may be influenced differently by E2 replacement. Accordingly, the present study examined whether E2 modulates fear conditioning using the Shock-Probe test, which allows for the observation of multiple fear responses. Ovariectomized (OVX) rats were divided into three groups: no E2 replacement (Shock-Oil; 0.1ml/kg sesame oil), high E2 replacement (Shock-E2; 3 daily doses of 10μg/kg, s.c.), and a no shock, no E2 replacement (Naïve-oil) group. During the acquisition phase, the two shock groups (Shock-Oil and Shock-E2) demonstrated comparable fear expression on all measures. During the retention tests, rats without E2 replacement demonstrated intact contextual-fear conditioning but impaired cued-fear conditioning, while rats with E2 replacement demonstrated the opposite pattern. In the context paired with shock, the Shock-Oil group spent more time burying the probe than both the Naïve-oil group and Shock-E2 group. The Shock-E2 group avoided the probe area relative to the other two groups when tested in the context unpaired with shock. The present findings demonstrate the importance of using multiple behaviors to measure fear conditioning and suggest that high E2 replacement impairs contextual and facilitates cued fear conditioning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole J Gervais
- Center for Studies in Behavioral Neurobiology, Department of Psychology, Concordia University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
| | - Sofia Jacob
- Center for Studies in Behavioral Neurobiology, Department of Psychology, Concordia University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Wayne G Brake
- Center for Studies in Behavioral Neurobiology, Department of Psychology, Concordia University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Dave G Mumby
- Center for Studies in Behavioral Neurobiology, Department of Psychology, Concordia University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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Cai ZL, Wang CY, Jiang ZJ, Li HH, Liu WX, Gong LW, Xiao P, Li CH. Effects of cordycepin on Y-maze learning task in mice. Eur J Pharmacol 2013; 714:249-53. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2013.05.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2013] [Revised: 05/17/2013] [Accepted: 05/30/2013] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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Abstract
Brain injury during development can have severe, long-term consequences. Using an array of animal models, we have an understanding of the etiology of perinatal brain injury. However, we have only recently begun to address the consequences of endogenous factors such as genetic sex and developmental steroid hormone milieu. Our limited understanding has sometimes led researchers to make over-generalizing and potentially dangerous statements regarding treatment for brain injury. Therefore this review acts as a cautionary tale, speaking to our need to understand the effects of sex and steroid hormone environment on the response to brain trauma in the neonate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph Nuñez
- Neuroscience Program, Michigan State University, 108 Giltner Hall, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA.
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