1
|
Li L, Fan B, Zhang Y, Zhao M, Kong Z, Wang F, Li M. Cannabidiol exposure during embryonic period caused serious malformation in embryos and inhibited the development of reproductive system in adult zebrafish. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 950:175315. [PMID: 39111451 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.175315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2024] [Revised: 07/17/2024] [Accepted: 08/04/2024] [Indexed: 08/11/2024]
Abstract
Cannabidiol (CBD) is a non-psychoactive component of cannabis with potential applications in biomedicine, food, and cosmetics due to its analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and anticonvulsant properties. However, increasing reports of adverse CBD exposure events underscore the necessity of evaluating its toxicity. In this study, we investigated the developmental toxicity of CBD in zebrafish during the embryonic (0-4 dpf, days post fertilization) and early larval stages (5-7 dpf). The median lethal concentration of CBD in embryos/larvae is 793.28 μg/L. CBD exhibited concentration-dependent manner (ranging from 250 to 1500 μg/L) in inducing serious malformed somatotypes, like shorter body length, pericardial cysts, vitelline cysts, spinal curvature, and smaller eyes. However, no singular deformity predominates. The 5-month-old zebrafish treated with 100 and 200 μg/L of CBD during the embryonic and early larval stages produced fewer offspring with higher natural mortality and malformation rate. Gonadal growth and gamete development were inhibited. Transcriptomic and metabolomic analyses conducted with 400 μg/L CBD on embryos/larvae from 0 to 5 dpf suggested that CBD promoted the formation and transportation of extracellular matrix components on 1 dpf, promoting abnormal cell division and migration, probably resulting in random malformed somatotypes. It inhibited optical vesicle development and photoreceptors formation on 2 and 3 dpf, resulting in damaged sight and smaller eye size. CBD also induced an integrated stress response on 4 and 5 dpf, disrupting redox, protein, and cholesterol homeostasis, contributing to cellular damage, physiological dysfunction, embryonic death, and inhibited reproductive system and ability in adult zebrafish. At the tested concentrations, CBD exhibited developmental toxicity, lethal toxicity, and reproductive inhibition in zebrafish. These findings demonstrate that CBD threatens the model aquatic animal, highlighting the need for additional toxicological evaluations of CBD before its inclusion in dietary supplements, edible food, and other products.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lin Li
- Key Laboratory of Agro-products Quality and Safety Control in Storage and Transport Process, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, PR China
| | - Bei Fan
- Key Laboratory of Agro-products Quality and Safety Control in Storage and Transport Process, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, PR China; Western Agricultural Research Center, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changji 831100, PR China
| | - Yifan Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Agro-products Quality and Safety Control in Storage and Transport Process, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, PR China
| | - Mengying Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Agro-products Quality and Safety Control in Storage and Transport Process, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, PR China
| | - Zhiqiang Kong
- State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Diseases and Insect Pests, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, PR China
| | - Fengzhong Wang
- Key Laboratory of Agro-products Quality and Safety Control in Storage and Transport Process, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, PR China.
| | - Minmin Li
- Key Laboratory of Agro-products Quality and Safety Control in Storage and Transport Process, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, PR China; Western Agricultural Research Center, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changji 831100, PR China.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Medkova D, Lakdawala P, Hodkovicova N, Blahova J, Faldyna M, Mares J, Vaclavik J, Doubkova V, Hollerova A, Svobodova Z. Effects of different pharmaceutical residues on embryos of fish species native to Central Europe. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 291:132915. [PMID: 34788676 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.132915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2021] [Revised: 11/12/2021] [Accepted: 11/13/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Environmental concentrations of pharmacologically active substances are increasing dramatically throughout the world, to the point where they are now considered a serious threat to the aquatic environment. This high occurrence of pharmaceutical residues in the aquatic environment is due to an increase in i) the prescription and consumption of drugs, and ii) their subsequent discharge into wastewater and its imperfect purification in wastewater treatment plants. Recent surveys have clearly shown that such substances can have serious negative effects on non-target organisms. In the present study, we tested the effects of several commonly used pharmaceuticals, such as antidepressants, analgesics and antibiotics, on the embryonic stages of different fishes. Specifically, we applied concentration ranges of tramadol, enrofloxacin and nortriptylined on a common toxicological model organism, the zebrafish (Danio rerio), and other species native to Central European freshwaters, i.e. common carp (Cyprinus carpio), catfish (Silurus glanis) and tench (Tinca tinca). Our results show that, though malformation and negative impacts on hatching and mortality were only observed at the highest test concentrations, gene expression indicated that even low environmentally relevant concentrations (0.1 μg/L) can cause significant changes in early development of embryo.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Denisa Medkova
- Department of Animal Protection and Welfare & Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Hygiene and Ecology, University of Veterinary Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic; Department of Zoology, Fisheries, Hydrobiology and Apiculture, Faculty of Agrisciences, Mendel University in Brno, Brno, Czech Republic.
| | - Pavla Lakdawala
- Department of Animal Protection and Welfare & Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Hygiene and Ecology, University of Veterinary Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Nikola Hodkovicova
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Preventive Medicine, Veterinary Research Institute, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jana Blahova
- Department of Animal Protection and Welfare & Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Hygiene and Ecology, University of Veterinary Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Martin Faldyna
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Preventive Medicine, Veterinary Research Institute, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Mares
- Department of Zoology, Fisheries, Hydrobiology and Apiculture, Faculty of Agrisciences, Mendel University in Brno, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Josef Vaclavik
- Department of Animal Protection and Welfare & Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Hygiene and Ecology, University of Veterinary Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Veronika Doubkova
- Department of Animal Protection and Welfare & Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Hygiene and Ecology, University of Veterinary Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Aneta Hollerova
- Department of Animal Protection and Welfare & Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Hygiene and Ecology, University of Veterinary Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic; Department of Infectious Diseases and Preventive Medicine, Veterinary Research Institute, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Zdenka Svobodova
- Department of Animal Protection and Welfare & Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Hygiene and Ecology, University of Veterinary Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Garcia-Suarez O, Cabo R, Abbate F, Randazzo B, Laurà R, Piccione G, Germanà A, Levanti M. Presence and distribution of leptin and its receptor in the gut of adult zebrafish in response to feeding and fasting. Anat Histol Embryol 2018; 47:456-465. [PMID: 29998487 DOI: 10.1111/ahe.12384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2017] [Revised: 11/07/2017] [Accepted: 06/12/2018] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Leptin is an anorectic hormone secreted mainly by peripheral adipocytes but also by other central and peripheral tissues. It acts by means of a receptor called OB-R, influencing not only appetite and body mass but being also involved in many fields like endocrinology, metabolism and reproduction. Immunohistochemistry and qRT-PCR techniques were, respectively, used to demonstrate the presence of leptin and its receptor in the gut of adult zebrafish and to evaluate the leptin gene expression response to feeding and fasting. Immunoreactivity for the antibodies utilized was demonstrated in feeding but not in fasting fish, and the gene expression analysis corroborates the data obtained by immunohistochemistry. Therefore, all the obtained results support the hypothesis of the role of this hormone in food regulation in zebrafish.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Olivia Garcia-Suarez
- Departamento de Morfología y Biología Celular, Grupo SINPOS, Universidad de Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain
| | - Roberto Cabo
- Departamento de Morfología y Biología Celular, Grupo SINPOS, Universidad de Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain
| | - Francesco Abbate
- Dipartimento di Scienze Veterinarie, Zebrafish Neuromorphology Lab, Università di Messina, Polo Universitario dell'Annunziata, Messina, Italy
| | - Basilio Randazzo
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita e dell'Ambiente, Università Politecnica delle Marche, Ancona, Italy
| | - Rosaria Laurà
- Dipartimento di Scienze Veterinarie, Zebrafish Neuromorphology Lab, Università di Messina, Polo Universitario dell'Annunziata, Messina, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Piccione
- Dipartimento di Scienze Veterinarie, Zebrafish Neuromorphology Lab, Università di Messina, Polo Universitario dell'Annunziata, Messina, Italy
| | - Antonino Germanà
- Dipartimento di Scienze Veterinarie, Zebrafish Neuromorphology Lab, Università di Messina, Polo Universitario dell'Annunziata, Messina, Italy
| | - Maria Levanti
- Dipartimento di Scienze Veterinarie, Zebrafish Neuromorphology Lab, Università di Messina, Polo Universitario dell'Annunziata, Messina, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Guerrera M, Abbate F, Di Caro G, Germanà G, Levanti M, Micale V, Montalbano G, Laurà R, Germanà A, Muglia U. Localization of cholecystokinin in the zebrafish retina from larval to adult stage. Ann Anat 2018; 218:175-181. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aanat.2018.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2017] [Revised: 01/15/2018] [Accepted: 01/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
|
5
|
Mania M, Maruccio L, Russo F, Abbate F, Castaldo L, D'Angelo L, de Girolamo P, Guerrera MC, Lucini C, Madrigrano M, Levanti M, Germanà A. Expression and distribution of leptin and its receptors in the digestive tract of DIO (diet-induced obese) zebrafish. Ann Anat 2017; 212:37-47. [PMID: 28477448 DOI: 10.1016/j.aanat.2017.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2016] [Revised: 03/17/2017] [Accepted: 03/22/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The expression and localization of leptin (A and B) and its receptor family in control and diet-induced obese (DIO) adult male zebrafish gut, after 5-weeks overfeeding, administering Artemia nauplii, as fat-rich food, were investigated. Recently, the obese adult zebrafish was considered an experimental model with pathophysiological pathways similar to mammalian obesity. Currently, there are no reports about leptin in fish obesity, or in a state of altered energy balance. By qRT-PCR, leptin A and leptin B expression levels were significantly higher in DIO zebrafish gut than in the control group (CTRL), and the lowest levels of leptin receptor mRNA appeared in DIO zebrafish gut. The presence of leptin and its receptor proteins in the intestinal tract was detected by western blot analysis in both control and DIO zebrafish. By single immunohistochemical staining, leptin and leptin receptor immunoreactive endocrine cells were identified in the intestinal tract either in DIO or control zebrafish. Moreover, leptin immunopositive enteric nervous system elements were observed in both groups. By double immunohistochemical staining, leptin and its receptor were colocalized especially in DIO zebrafish. Thus, our study represents a starting point in the investigation of a possible involvement of leptin in control of energy homeostasis in control and DIO zebrafish.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M Mania
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Messina, Italy
| | - L Maruccio
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Productions, University of Naples Federico II, Italy.
| | - F Russo
- Department of Sciences and Technologies, University of Sannio, Italy
| | - F Abbate
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Messina, Italy; Zebrafish Neuromorphology Lab, University of Messina, Italy
| | - L Castaldo
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Productions, University of Naples Federico II, Italy
| | - L D'Angelo
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Productions, University of Naples Federico II, Italy
| | - P de Girolamo
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Productions, University of Naples Federico II, Italy
| | - M C Guerrera
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Messina, Italy; Zebrafish Neuromorphology Lab, University of Messina, Italy
| | - C Lucini
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Productions, University of Naples Federico II, Italy
| | - M Madrigrano
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Messina, Italy
| | - M Levanti
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Messina, Italy; Zebrafish Neuromorphology Lab, University of Messina, Italy
| | - A Germanà
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Messina, Italy; Zebrafish Neuromorphology Lab, University of Messina, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Rincón Camacho L, Morandini L, Birba A, Cavallino L, Alonso F, LoNostro FL, Pandolfi M. The pineal complex: a morphological and immunohistochemical comparison between a tropical (Paracheirodon axelrodi) and a subtropical (Aphyocharax anisitsi) characid species. J Morphol 2016; 277:1355-67. [PMID: 27439893 DOI: 10.1002/jmor.20581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2016] [Revised: 06/06/2016] [Accepted: 06/25/2016] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Cardinal neon Paracheirodon axelrodi and bloodfin tetra Aphyocharax anisitsi are two species of characids with high trade value as ornamental fish in South America. Although both species inhabit middle water layers, cardinal neon exhibits a tropical distribution and bloodfin tetra a subtropical one. In this work, we carried out an anatomical, histological and immunohistochemical study of the pineal complex of P. axelrodi and A. anisitsi. In both species, the pineal complex consisted of three components, the pineal and parapineal organs and the dorsal sac (DS). The pineal organ was composed of a short, thin pineal stalk (PS), vertically disposed with respect to the upper surface of the telencephalon, and a pineal vesicle (PV), located at the distal end of the PS and attached to the skull by connective tissue. The pineal window (PW), a site in the skull where the luminal information accesses the pineal organ, appeared just above the latter structures. In the epidermis of P. axelrodi's PW, club cells were identified, but were not observed in the epidermis of A. anisitsi's one. With respect to the DS, it appeared to be folded on itself, and was bigger and more folded in A. anisitsi than in P. axelrodi. Immunohistochemical assays revealed the presence of cone opsin-like and rod opsin-like photoreceptor cells in the PS and PV. These results provide a first insight into the morphological assembly of the pineal complex of both species, and contribute to a better understanding of the integration and transduction of light stimuli in characids. J. Morphol. 277:1355-1367, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Laura Rincón Camacho
- Laboratorio De Neuroendocrinología Y Comportamiento, Departamento de Biodiversidad y Biología Experimental (DBBE), FCEN, UBA E IBBEA, CONICET-UBA, Ciudad Universitaria, Intendente Güirlades 2160, Ciudad Autónoma De Buenos Aires, C1428EHA, Argentina
| | - Leonel Morandini
- Laboratorio De Neuroendocrinología Y Comportamiento, Departamento de Biodiversidad y Biología Experimental (DBBE), FCEN, UBA E IBBEA, CONICET-UBA, Ciudad Universitaria, Intendente Güirlades 2160, Ciudad Autónoma De Buenos Aires, C1428EHA, Argentina
| | - Agustina Birba
- Laboratorio De Neuroendocrinología Y Comportamiento, Departamento de Biodiversidad y Biología Experimental (DBBE), FCEN, UBA E IBBEA, CONICET-UBA, Ciudad Universitaria, Intendente Güirlades 2160, Ciudad Autónoma De Buenos Aires, C1428EHA, Argentina
| | - Luciano Cavallino
- Laboratorio De Neuroendocrinología Y Comportamiento, Departamento de Biodiversidad y Biología Experimental (DBBE), FCEN, UBA E IBBEA, CONICET-UBA, Ciudad Universitaria, Intendente Güirlades 2160, Ciudad Autónoma De Buenos Aires, C1428EHA, Argentina
| | - Felipe Alonso
- División Ictiología, CONICET, Museo Argentino De Ciencias Naturales, Buenos Aires, C1405DJR, Argentina
| | - Fabiana L LoNostro
- Laboratorio De Ecotoxicología Acuática, Departamento de Biodiversidad y Biología Experimental (DBBE), FCEN, UBA E IBBEA, CONICET-UBA, Ciudad Universitaria, Intendente Güirlades 2160, Ciudad Autónoma De Buenos Aires, C1428EHA, Argentina
| | - Matias Pandolfi
- Laboratorio De Neuroendocrinología Y Comportamiento, Departamento de Biodiversidad y Biología Experimental (DBBE), FCEN, UBA E IBBEA, CONICET-UBA, Ciudad Universitaria, Intendente Güirlades 2160, Ciudad Autónoma De Buenos Aires, C1428EHA, Argentina.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Birba A, Ramallo MR, Morandini L, Villafañe V, Tubert C, Guimarães Moreira R, Pandolfi M. The pineal complex in the cichlid Cichlasoma dimerus: effect of different photoperiods on its cell morphology. JOURNAL OF FISH BIOLOGY 2014; 85:605-620. [PMID: 24976599 DOI: 10.1111/jfb.12446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2014] [Accepted: 05/08/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
This research describes the pineal complex histology in juvenile and adult Cichlasoma dimerus, and the effect of different photoperiods on its cell morphology. In both juveniles and adults, the pineal complex of C. dimerus has three components: the pineal organ, consisting of a pineal vesicle (PV) and a pineal stalk, the parapineal organ and the dorsal sac. Although a strong morphological resemblance exists between the two stages, different synthesis patterns of cone and rod opsins were detected in the two life stages. An effect of the photoperiod length was observed on putative pinealocytes' activity from the PV, measured indirectly through nuclear area morphometry. Individuals exposed to a natural photoperiod (14L:10D) had smaller nuclear areas (mean ± s.e. = 13·82 ± 1·52 µm(2) ) than those exposed to a short photoperiod (8:16) (21·45 ± 2·67 µm(2) ; P < 0·001). Eventually, the nuclear area of pinealocytes could be used as a putative indicator of melatonin synthesis in fishes where it is difficult to obtain plasma samples, e.g. due to its small size or age. This work constitutes one of the few comparative descriptions of the pineal complex of juvenile and adult teleost and suggests potential approaches for the study of melatonin synthesis in fish larvae or small adult fishes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A Birba
- Departamento de Biodiversidad y Biología Experimental, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Ciudad Universitaria (C1428EHA), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
8
|
Korbas M, Lai B, Vogt S, Gleber SC, Karunakaran C, Pickering IJ, Krone PH, George GN. Methylmercury targets photoreceptor outer segments. ACS Chem Biol 2013; 8:2256-63. [PMID: 23957296 DOI: 10.1021/cb4004805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Human populations experience widespread low level exposure to organometallic methylmercury compounds through consumption of fish and other seafood. At higher levels, methylmercury compounds specifically target nervous systems, and among the many effects of their exposure are visual disturbances, including blindness, which previously were thought to be due to methylmercury-induced damage to the visual cortex. Here, we employ high-resolution X-ray fluorescence imaging using beam sizes of 500 × 500 and 250 × 250 nm(2) to investigate the localization of mercury at unprecedented resolution in sections of zebrafish larvae ( Danio rerio ), a model developing vertebrate. We demonstrate that methylmercury specifically targets the outer segments of photoreceptor cells in both the retina and pineal gland. Methylmercury distribution in both tissues was correlated with that of sulfur, which, together with methylmercury's affinity for thiolate donors, suggests involvement of protein cysteine residues in methylmercury binding. In contrast, in the lens, the mercury distribution was different from that of sulfur, with methylmercury specifically accumulating in the secondary fiber cells immediately underlying the lens epithelial cells rather than in the lens epithelial cells themselves. Since methylmercury targets two main eye tissues (lens and photoreceptors) that are directly involved in visual perception, it now seems likely that the visual disruption associated with methylmercury exposure in higher animals including humans may arise from direct damage to photoreceptors, in addition to injury of the visual cortex.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Malgorzata Korbas
- Canadian Light Source Inc., 44 Innovation Boulevard, Saskatoon, SK
S7N 2V3, Canada
- Department
of Anatomy and Cell
Biology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon,
SK S7N 5E5, Canada
| | - Barry Lai
- X-ray
Science Division, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 South Cass Avenue,
Argonne, Illinois 60439, United States
| | - Stefan Vogt
- X-ray
Science Division, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 South Cass Avenue,
Argonne, Illinois 60439, United States
| | - Sophie-Charlotte Gleber
- X-ray
Science Division, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 South Cass Avenue,
Argonne, Illinois 60439, United States
| | - Chithra Karunakaran
- Canadian Light Source Inc., 44 Innovation Boulevard, Saskatoon, SK
S7N 2V3, Canada
| | - Ingrid J. Pickering
- Department of Geological Sciences, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5E2,
Canada
- Toxicology Centre, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5B3,
Canada
| | - Patrick H. Krone
- Department
of Anatomy and Cell
Biology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon,
SK S7N 5E5, Canada
- Toxicology Centre, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5B3,
Canada
| | - Graham N. George
- Department of Geological Sciences, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5E2,
Canada
- Toxicology Centre, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5B3,
Canada
| |
Collapse
|