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Amin S, Carling G, Gan L. New insights and therapeutic opportunities for progranulin-deficient frontotemporal dementia. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2022; 72:131-139. [PMID: 34826653 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2021.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2021] [Accepted: 10/19/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Frontotemporal dementia (FTD) is the second most common form of dementia. It affects the frontal and temporal lobes of the brain and has a highly heterogeneous clinical representation with patients presenting with a wide range of behavioral, language, and executive dysfunctions. Etiology of FTD is complex and consists of both familial and sporadic cases. Heterozygous mutations in the GRN gene, resulting in GRN haploinsufficiency, cause progranulin (PGRN)-deficient FTD characterized with cytoplasmic mislocalization of TAR DNA-binding protein 43 kDa (TDP-43) aggregates. GRN codes for PGRN, a secreted protein that is also localized in the endolysosomes and plays a critical role in regulating lysosomal homeostasis. How PGRN deficiency modulates immunity and causes TDP-43 pathology and FTD-related neurodegeneration remains an active area of intense investigation. In the current review, we discuss some of the significant progress made in the past two years that links PGRN deficiency with microglial-associated neuroinflammation, TDP-43 pathology, and lysosomal dysfunction. We also review the opportunities and challenges toward developing therapies and biomarkers to treat PGRN-deficient FTD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sadaf Amin
- Helen and Robert Appel Alzheimer's Disease Research Institute, Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10021, USA
| | - Gillian Carling
- Helen and Robert Appel Alzheimer's Disease Research Institute, Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10021, USA; Neuroscience Graduate Program, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10021, USA
| | - Li Gan
- Helen and Robert Appel Alzheimer's Disease Research Institute, Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10021, USA.
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2
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Chen Q, Boeve BF, Senjem M, Tosakulwong N, Lesnick T, Brushaber D, Dheel C, Fields J, Forsberg L, Gavrilova R, Gearhart D, Graff-Radford J, Graff-Radford N, Jack CR, Jones D, Knopman D, Kremers WK, Lapid M, Rademakers R, Ramos EM, Syrjanen J, Boxer AL, Rosen H, Wszolek ZK, Kantarci K. Trajectory of lobar atrophy in asymptomatic and symptomatic GRN mutation carriers: a longitudinal MRI study. Neurobiol Aging 2020; 88:42-50. [PMID: 31918955 PMCID: PMC7767622 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2019.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2019] [Revised: 12/03/2019] [Accepted: 12/06/2019] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Loss-of-function mutations in the progranulin gene (GRN) are one of the major causes of familial frontotemporal lobar degeneration. Our objective was to determine the rates and trajectories of lobar cortical atrophy from longitudinal structural magnetic resonance imaging in both asymptomatic and symptomatic GRN mutation carriers. Individuals in this study were from the ADRC and LEFFTDS studies at the Mayo Clinic. We identified 13 GRN mutation carriers (8 asymptomatic, 5 symptomatic) and noncarriers (n = 10) who had at least 2 serial T1-weighted structural magnetic resonance images and were followed annually with a median of 3 years (range 1.0-9.8 years). Longitudinal changes in lobar cortical volume were analyzed using the tensor-based morphometry with symmetric normalization (TBM-SyN) algorithm. Linear mixed-effect models were used to model cortical volume change over time among 3 groups. The annual rates of frontal (p < 0.05) and parietal (p < 0.01) lobe cortical atrophy were higher in asymptomatic GRN mutation carriers than noncarriers. The symptomatic GRN mutation carriers also had increased rates of atrophy in the frontal (p < 0.01) and parietal lobe (p < 0.01) cortices than noncarriers. In addition, greater rates of cortical atrophy were observed in the temporal lobe cortices of symptomatic GRN mutation carriers than noncarriers (p < 0.001). We found that a decline in frontal and parietal lobar cortical volume occurs in asymptomatic GRN mutation carriers and continues in the symptomatic GRN mutation carriers, whereas an increased rate of temporal lobe cortical atrophy is observed only in symptomatic GRN mutation carriers. This sequential pattern of cortical involvement in GRN mutation carriers has important implications for using imaging biomarkers of neurodegeneration as an outcome measure in potential treatment trials involving GRN mutation carriers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qin Chen
- Department of Neurology, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China; Department of Radiology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Bradley F Boeve
- Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA; Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Matthew Senjem
- Department of Radiology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | | | - Timothy Lesnick
- Department of Health Sciences Research, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Danielle Brushaber
- Department of Health Sciences Research, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA; Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Christina Dheel
- Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA; Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Julie Fields
- Department of Psychology and Psychiatry, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Leah Forsberg
- Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA; Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Ralitza Gavrilova
- Department of Clinical Genomic and Neurology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Debra Gearhart
- Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA; Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Jonathan Graff-Radford
- Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA; Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | | | - Clifford R Jack
- Department of Radiology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA; Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - David Jones
- Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA; Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - David Knopman
- Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA; Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Walter K Kremers
- Department of Health Sciences Research, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Maria Lapid
- Department of Psychology and Psychiatry, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Rosa Rademakers
- Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA; Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Eliana Marisa Ramos
- Department of Psychiatry, David Geffen School of Medicine University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Jeremy Syrjanen
- Department of Health Sciences Research, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Adam L Boxer
- Memory and Aging Center, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Howie Rosen
- Memory and Aging Center, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | | | - Kejal Kantarci
- Department of Radiology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA; Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA.
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3
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Chen Q, Kantarci K. Imaging Biomarkers for Neurodegeneration in Presymptomatic Familial Frontotemporal Lobar Degeneration. Front Neurol 2020; 11:80. [PMID: 32184751 PMCID: PMC7058699 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2020.00080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2019] [Accepted: 01/22/2020] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by behavioral changes, language abnormality, as well as executive function deficits and motor impairment. In about 30-50% of FTLD patients, an autosomal dominant pattern of inheritance was found with major mutations in the MAPT, GRN, and the C9orf72 repeat expansion. These mutations could lead to neurodegenerative pathology years before clinical symptoms onset. With potential disease-modifying treatments that are under development, non-invasive biomarkers that help determine the early brain changes in presymptomatic FTLD patients will be critical for tracking disease progression and enrolling the right participants into the clinical trials at the right time during the disease course. In recent years, there is increasing evidence that a number of imaging biomarkers show the abnormalities during the presymptomatic stage. Imaging biomarkers of presymptomatic familial FTLD may provide insight into the underlying neurodegenerative process years before symptom onset. Structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has demonstrated cortical degeneration with a mutation-specific neurodegeneration pattern years before onset of clinical symptoms in presymptomatic familial FTLD mutation carriers. In addition, diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) has shown the loss of white matter microstructural integrity in the presymptomatic stage of familial FTLD. Furthermore, proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H MRS), which provides a non-invasive measurement of brain biochemistry, has identified early neurochemical abnormalities in presymptomatic MAPT mutation carriers. Positron emission tomography (PET) imaging with [18F]-fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) has demonstrated the glucose hypometabolism in the presymptomatic stage of familial FTLD. Also, a novel PET ligand, 18F-AV-1451, has been used in this group to evaluate tau deposition in the brain. Promising imaging biomarkers for presymptomatic familial FTLD have been identified and assessed for specificity and sensitivity for accurate prediction of symptom onset and tracking disease progression during the presymptomatic stage when clinical measures are not useful. Furthermore, identifying imaging biomarkers for the presymptomatic stage is important for the design of disease-modifying trials. We review the recent progress in imaging biomarkers of the presymptomatic phase of familial FTLD and discuss the imaging techniques and analysis methods, with a focus on the potential implication of these imaging techniques and their utility in specific mutation types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qin Chen
- Department of Neurology, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu, China.,Department of Radiology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States
| | - Kejal Kantarci
- Department of Radiology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States
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4
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Elia LP, Reisine T, Alijagic A, Finkbeiner S. Approaches to develop therapeutics to treat frontotemporal dementia. Neuropharmacology 2020; 166:107948. [PMID: 31962288 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2020.107948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2019] [Revised: 12/16/2019] [Accepted: 01/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Frontotemporal degeneration (FTD) is a complex disease presenting as a spectrum of clinical disorders with progressive degeneration of frontal and temporal brain cortices and extensive neuroinflammation that result in personality and behavior changes, and eventually, death. There are currently no effective therapies for FTD. While 60-70% of FTD patients are sporadic cases, the other 30-40% are heritable (familial) cases linked to mutations in several known genes. We focus here on FTD caused by mutations in the GRN gene, which encodes a secreted protein, progranulin (PGRN), that has diverse roles in regulating cell survival, immune responses, and autophagy and lysosome function in the brain. FTD-linked mutations in GRN reduce brain PGRN levels that lead to autophagy and lysosome dysfunction, TDP43 accumulation, excessive microglial activation, astrogliosis, and neuron death through still poorly understood mechanisms. PGRN insufficiency has also been linked to Alzheimer's disease (AD), and so the development of therapeutics for GRN-linked FTD that restore PGRN levels and function may have broader application for other neurodegenerative diseases. This review focuses on a strategy to increase PGRN to functional, healthy levels in the brain by identifying novel genetic and chemical modulators of neuronal PGRN levels. This article is part of the special issue entitled 'The Quest for Disease-Modifying Therapies for Neurodegenerative Disorders'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa P Elia
- Center for Systems and Therapeutics and Taube/Koret Center for Neurodegenerative Disease Research, San Francisco, CA, USA; The J. David Gladstone Institutes, San Francisco, CA, USA.
| | - Terry Reisine
- Independent Scientific Consultant, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | - Amela Alijagic
- Center for Systems and Therapeutics and Taube/Koret Center for Neurodegenerative Disease Research, San Francisco, CA, USA; The J. David Gladstone Institutes, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Steven Finkbeiner
- Center for Systems and Therapeutics and Taube/Koret Center for Neurodegenerative Disease Research, San Francisco, CA, USA; The J. David Gladstone Institutes, San Francisco, CA, USA; Departments of Neurology and Physiology, UCSF, San Francisco, CA, USA.
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5
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Wu LS, Cheng WC, Chen CY, Wu MC, Wang YC, Tseng YH, Chuang TJ, Shen CKJ. Transcriptomopathies of pre- and post-symptomatic frontotemporal dementia-like mice with TDP-43 depletion in forebrain neurons. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2019; 7:50. [PMID: 30922385 PMCID: PMC6440020 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-019-0674-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2019] [Accepted: 02/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
TAR DNA-binding protein (TDP-43) is a ubiquitously expressed nuclear protein, which participates in a number of cellular processes and has been identified as the major pathological factor in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD). Here we constructed a conditional TDP-43 mouse with depletion of TDP-43 in the mouse forebrain and find that the mice exhibit a whole spectrum of age-dependent frontotemporal dementia-like behaviour abnormalities including perturbation of social behaviour, development of dementia-like behaviour, changes of activities of daily living, and memory loss at a later stage of life. These variations are accompanied with inflammation, neurodegeneration, and abnormal synaptic plasticity of the mouse CA1 neurons. Importantly, analysis of the cortical RNA transcripts of the conditional knockout mice at the pre-/post-symptomatic stages and the corresponding wild type mice reveals age-dependent alterations in the expression levels and RNA processing patterns of a set of genes closely associated with inflammation, social behaviour, synaptic plasticity, and neuron survival. This study not only supports the scenario that loss-of-function of TDP-43 in mice may recapitulate key behaviour features of the FTLD diseases, but also provides a list of TDP-43 target genes/transcript isoforms useful for future therapeutic research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lien-Szu Wu
- Institute of Molecular Biology, Academia Sinica, Nankang, Taipei, 115, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Wei-Cheng Cheng
- Institute of Molecular Biology, Academia Sinica, Nankang, Taipei, 115, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Chia-Ying Chen
- Genomics Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Ming-Che Wu
- Institute of Molecular Biology, Academia Sinica, Nankang, Taipei, 115, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Yi-Chi Wang
- Research Center for Environmental Changes, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | | | | | - C-K James Shen
- Institute of Molecular Biology, Academia Sinica, Nankang, Taipei, 115, Taiwan, Republic of China.
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6
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Kuiperij HB, Versleijen AAM, Beenes M, Verwey NA, Benussi L, Paterlini A, Binetti G, Teunissen CE, Raaphorst J, Schelhaas HJ, Küsters B, Pijnenburg YAL, Ghidoni R, Verbeek MM. Tau Rather than TDP-43 Proteins are Potential Cerebrospinal Fluid Biomarkers for Frontotemporal Lobar Degeneration Subtypes: A Pilot Study. J Alzheimers Dis 2018; 55:585-595. [PMID: 27662293 DOI: 10.3233/jad-160386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Frontotemporal dementia (FTD) is a heterogeneous disease both at the clinical, genetic, and pathobiological level. The underlying pathological spectrum (termed FTLD, frontotemporal lobar degeneration) is in most cases defined by accumulation of either tau (FTLD-tau) or TDP-43 proteins (FTLD-TDP). Biomarkers to differentiate these subtypes are not yet available, whereas these are essential requirements to study the natural course of disease and for homogeneous inclusion of patients in clinical studies. OBJECTIVE To study if a combination of total (t-) and phosphorylated (p-)tau, and t-TDP-43 and p-TDP-43 proteins in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is suitable to discriminate FTLD-tau and FTLD-TDP subtypes. METHODS We developed immunoassays for the quantification of t-TDP-43 and p-TDP-43 proteins and used commercially available assays for the quantification of t-tau and p-tau proteins. We quantified these proteins in ventricular CSF samples from neuropathologically defined FTLD-tau and FTLD-TDP cases to study the reflection of underlying brain pathology in CSF composition, and in lumbar CSF samples from FTLD-tau and FTLD-TDP patients to study the diagnostic potential of CSF biomarkers. RESULTS In ventricular CSF, t-TDP-43 and t-tau levels, when combined into one model, were significantly different between neuropathologically-defined FTLD-tau and FTLD-TDP cases. In a pilot study using lumbar CSF, the p-tau/t-tau ratio, but not t-TDP-43 levels, were significantly different between FTLD-TDP and FTLD-tau patients. CONCLUSION We conclude that with current available methods, CSF tau, rather than TDP-43 proteins, may have diagnostic value in the differentiation of FTLD patients with either tau or TDP-43 pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Bea Kuiperij
- Department of Neurology, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud Alzheimer Centre, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.,Department of Laboratory Medicine, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | | | - Marijke Beenes
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Nicolaas A Verwey
- Alzheimer Center and Department of Neurology, Neuroscience Campus Amsterdam, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Present affiliation: Medisch Centrum Leeuwarden, Leeuwarden, The Netherlands
| | - Luisa Benussi
- Molecular Markers Lab, IRCCS Istituto Centro San Giovanni di Dio Fatebenefratelli, Brescia, Italy
| | - Anna Paterlini
- Molecular Markers Lab, IRCCS Istituto Centro San Giovanni di Dio Fatebenefratelli, Brescia, Italy
| | - Giuliano Binetti
- Molecular Markers Lab, IRCCS Istituto Centro San Giovanni di Dio Fatebenefratelli, Brescia, Italy
| | - Charlotte E Teunissen
- Department of Clinical Chemistry, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Joost Raaphorst
- Department of Neurology, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud Alzheimer Centre, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Helenius J Schelhaas
- Department of Neurology, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud Alzheimer Centre, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Benno Küsters
- Department of Pathology, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Yolande A L Pijnenburg
- Alzheimer Center and Department of Neurology, Neuroscience Campus Amsterdam, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Roberta Ghidoni
- Molecular Markers Lab, IRCCS Istituto Centro San Giovanni di Dio Fatebenefratelli, Brescia, Italy
| | - Marcel M Verbeek
- Department of Neurology, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud Alzheimer Centre, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.,Department of Laboratory Medicine, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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7
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Zanardini R, Benussi L, Fostinelli S, Saraceno C, Ciani M, Borroni B, Padovani A, Binetti G, Ghidoni R. Serum C-Peptide, Visfatin, Resistin, and Ghrelin are Altered in Sporadic and GRN-Associated Frontotemporal Lobar Degeneration. J Alzheimers Dis 2018; 61:1053-1060. [DOI: 10.3233/jad-170747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Roberta Zanardini
- Molecular Markers Laboratory, IRCCS Istituto Centro San Giovanni di Dio Fatebenefratelli, Brescia, Italy
| | - Luisa Benussi
- Molecular Markers Laboratory, IRCCS Istituto Centro San Giovanni di Dio Fatebenefratelli, Brescia, Italy
| | - Silvia Fostinelli
- Molecular Markers Laboratory, IRCCS Istituto Centro San Giovanni di Dio Fatebenefratelli, Brescia, Italy
| | - Claudia Saraceno
- Molecular Markers Laboratory, IRCCS Istituto Centro San Giovanni di Dio Fatebenefratelli, Brescia, Italy
| | - Miriam Ciani
- Molecular Markers Laboratory, IRCCS Istituto Centro San Giovanni di Dio Fatebenefratelli, Brescia, Italy
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
| | - Barbara Borroni
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, Neurology Unit, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
| | - Alessandro Padovani
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, Neurology Unit, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
| | - Giuliano Binetti
- Molecular Markers Laboratory, IRCCS Istituto Centro San Giovanni di Dio Fatebenefratelli, Brescia, Italy
- MAC Memory Center, IRCCS Istituto Centro San Giovanni di Dio Fatebenefratelli, Brescia, Italy
| | - Roberta Ghidoni
- Molecular Markers Laboratory, IRCCS Istituto Centro San Giovanni di Dio Fatebenefratelli, Brescia, Italy
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8
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Benussi L, Binetti G, Ghidoni R. Loss of Neuroprotective Factors in Neurodegenerative Dementias: The End or the Starting Point? Front Neurosci 2017; 11:672. [PMID: 29249935 PMCID: PMC5717017 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2017.00672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2017] [Accepted: 11/20/2017] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent clinical, genetic and biochemical experimental evidences highlight the existence of common molecular pathways underlying neurodegenerative diseases. In this review, we will explore a key common pathological mechanism, i.e., the loss of neuroprotective factors, across the three major neurodegenerative diseases leading to dementia: Alzheimer's disease (AD), Frontotemporal dementia (FTD) and Lewy body dementia (LBD). We will report evidences that the Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF), the most investigated and characterized brain neurotrophin, progranulin, a multi-functional adipokine with trophic and growth factor properties, and cystatin C, a neuroprotective growth factor, are reduced in AD, FTD, and LBD. Moreover, we will review the molecular mechanism underlying the loss of neuroprotective factors in neurodegenerative diseases leading to dementia, with a special focus on endo-lysosomal pathway and intercellular communication mediated by extracellular vesicles. Exploring the shared commonality of disease mechanisms is of pivotal importance to identify novel potential therapeutic targets and to develop treatments to delay, slow or block disease progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luisa Benussi
- Molecular Markers Laboratory, IRCCS Istituto Centro San Giovanni di Dio Fatebenefratelli, Brescia, Italy
| | - Giuliano Binetti
- Molecular Markers Laboratory, IRCCS Istituto Centro San Giovanni di Dio Fatebenefratelli, Brescia, Italy.,MAC Memory Center, IRCCS Istituto Centro San Giovanni di Dio Fatebenefratelli, Brescia, Italy
| | - Roberta Ghidoni
- Molecular Markers Laboratory, IRCCS Istituto Centro San Giovanni di Dio Fatebenefratelli, Brescia, Italy
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9
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Longhena F, Zaltieri M, Grigoletto J, Faustini G, La Via L, Ghidoni R, Benussi L, Missale C, Spano P, Bellucci A. Depletion of Progranulin Reduces GluN2B-Containing NMDA Receptor Density, Tau Phosphorylation, and Dendritic Arborization in Mouse Primary Cortical Neurons. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2017; 363:164-175. [DOI: 10.1124/jpet.117.242164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
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10
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Intracellular Proteolysis of Progranulin Generates Stable, Lysosomal Granulins that Are Haploinsufficient in Patients with Frontotemporal Dementia Caused by GRN Mutations. eNeuro 2017; 4:eN-NWR-0100-17. [PMID: 28828399 PMCID: PMC5562298 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0100-17.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2017] [Revised: 07/19/2017] [Accepted: 08/01/2017] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Homozygous or heterozygous mutations in the GRN gene, encoding progranulin (PGRN), cause neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis (NCL) or frontotemporal dementia (FTD), respectively. NCL and FTD are characterized by lysosome dysfunction and neurodegeneration, indicating PGRN is important for lysosome homeostasis in the brain. PGRN is trafficked to the lysosome where its functional role is unknown. PGRN can be cleaved into seven 6-kDa proteins called granulins (GRNs); however, little is known about how GRNs are produced or if levels of GRNs are altered in FTD-GRN mutation carriers. Here, we report the identification and characterization of antibodies that reliably detect several human GRNs by immunoblot and immunocytochemistry. Using these tools, we find that endogenous GRNs are present within multiple cell lines and are constitutively produced. Further, extracellular PGRN is endocytosed and rapidly processed into stable GRNs within lysosomes. Processing of PGRN into GRNs is conserved between humans and mice and is modulated by sortilin expression and mediated by cysteine proteases (i.e. cathpesin L). Induced lysosome dysfunction caused by alkalizing agents or increased expression of transmembrane protein 106B (TMEM106B) inhibit processing of PGRN into GRNs. Finally, we find that multiple GRNs are haploinsufficient in primary fibroblasts and cortical brain tissue from FTD-GRN patients. Taken together, our findings raise the interesting possibility that GRNs carry out critical lysosomal functions and that loss of GRNs should be explored as an initiating factor in lysosomal dysfunction and neurodegeneration caused by GRN mutations.
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11
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Coppola C, Saracino D, Puoti G, Lus G, Dato C, Le Ber I, Pariente J, Caroppo P, Piccoli E, Tagliavini F, Di Iorio G, Rossi G. A cluster of progranulin C157KfsX97 mutations in Southern Italy: clinical characterization and genetic correlations. Neurobiol Aging 2016; 49:219.e5-219.e13. [PMID: 27814992 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2016.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2016] [Accepted: 10/02/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD) is a group of neurodegenerative diseases displaying high clinical, pathologic, and genetic heterogeneity. Several autosomal dominant progranulin (GRN) mutations have been reported, accounting for 5%-10% of FTLD cases worldwide. In this study, we described the clinical characteristics of 7 Italian patients, 5 with a diagnosis of frontotemporal dementia behavioral variant and 2 of corticobasal syndrome (CBS), carrying the GRN deletion g.101349_101355delCTGCTGT, resulting in the C157KfsX97 null mutation, and hypothesized the existence of a founder effect by means of haplotype sharing analysis. We performed plasma progranulin dosage, GRN gene sequencing, and haplotype sharing study, analyzing 10 short tandem repeat markers, spanning a region of 11.08 Mb flanking GRN on chromosome 17q21. We observed shared alleles among 6 patients for 8 consecutive short tandem repeat markers spanning a 7.29 Mb region. Therefore, also with this particular mutation, the elevated clinical variability described among GRN-mutated FTLD cases is confirmed. Moreover, this is the first study reporting the likely existence of a founder effect for C157KfsX97 mutation in Southern Italy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cinzia Coppola
- Second Division of Neurology, Department of Medical, Surgical, Neurological, Metabolic and Aging Sciences, Second University of Naples, Naples, Italy.
| | - Dario Saracino
- Second Division of Neurology, Department of Medical, Surgical, Neurological, Metabolic and Aging Sciences, Second University of Naples, Naples, Italy
| | - Gianfranco Puoti
- Second Division of Neurology, Department of Medical, Surgical, Neurological, Metabolic and Aging Sciences, Second University of Naples, Naples, Italy
| | - Giacomo Lus
- Second Division of Neurology, Department of Medical, Surgical, Neurological, Metabolic and Aging Sciences, Second University of Naples, Naples, Italy
| | - Clemente Dato
- Second Division of Neurology, Department of Medical, Surgical, Neurological, Metabolic and Aging Sciences, Second University of Naples, Naples, Italy
| | - Isabelle Le Ber
- Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle épinière (ICM), INSERM U1127, CNRS UMR 7225, Sorbonne Universités, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Univ Paris 06, UPMC-P6 UMR S 1127 Hôpital de la Pitié-Salpêtrière, Paris, France; AP-HP, Hôpital de la Pitié-Salpêtrière, Centre de Référence des Démences Rares & Fédération des maladies du système nerveux, Paris, France
| | | | - Paola Caroppo
- Division of Neurology V-Neuropathology, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico Carlo Besta, Milan, Italy
| | - Elena Piccoli
- Division of Neurology V-Neuropathology, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico Carlo Besta, Milan, Italy
| | - Fabrizio Tagliavini
- Division of Neurology V-Neuropathology, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico Carlo Besta, Milan, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Di Iorio
- Second Division of Neurology, Department of Medical, Surgical, Neurological, Metabolic and Aging Sciences, Second University of Naples, Naples, Italy
| | - Giacomina Rossi
- Division of Neurology V-Neuropathology, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico Carlo Besta, Milan, Italy
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12
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Benussi L, Ciani M, Tonoli E, Morbin M, Palamara L, Albani D, Fusco F, Forloni G, Glionna M, Baco M, Paterlini A, Fostinelli S, Santini B, Galbiati E, Gagni P, Cretich M, Binetti G, Tagliavini F, Prosperi D, Chiari M, Ghidoni R. Loss of exosomes in progranulin-associated frontotemporal dementia. Neurobiol Aging 2016; 40:41-49. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2016.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2015] [Revised: 12/04/2015] [Accepted: 01/02/2016] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
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Calvo N, García AM, Manoiloff L, Ibáñez A. Bilingualism and Cognitive Reserve: A Critical Overview and a Plea for Methodological Innovations. Front Aging Neurosci 2016; 7:249. [PMID: 26793100 PMCID: PMC4709424 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2015.00249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2015] [Accepted: 12/18/2015] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The decline of cognitive skills throughout healthy or pathological aging can be slowed down by experiences which foster cognitive reserve (CR). Recently, some studies on Alzheimer's disease have suggested that CR may be enhanced by life-long bilingualism. However, the evidence is inconsistent and largely based on retrospective approaches featuring several methodological weaknesses. Some studies demonstrated at least 4 years of delay in dementia symptoms, while others did not find such an effect. Moreover, various methodological aspects vary from study to study. The present paper addresses contradictory findings, identifies possible lurking variables, and outlines methodological alternatives thereof. First, we characterize possible confounding factors that may have influenced extant results. Our focus is on the criteria to establish bilingualism, differences in sample design, the instruments used to examine cognitive skills, and the role of variables known to modulate life-long cognition. Second, we propose that these limitations could be largely circumvented through experimental approaches. Proficiency in the non-native language can be successfully assessed by combining subjective and objective measures; confounding variables which have been distinctively associated with certain bilingual groups (e.g., alcoholism, sleep disorders) can be targeted through relevant instruments; and cognitive status might be better tapped via robust cognitive screenings and executive batteries. Moreover, future research should incorporate tasks yielding predictable patterns of contrastive performance between bilinguals and monolinguals. Crucially, these include instruments which reveal bilingual disadvantages in vocabulary, null effects in working memory, and advantages in inhibitory control and other executive functions. Finally, paradigms tapping proactive interference (which assess the disruptive effect of long-term memory on newly learned information) could also offer useful data, since this phenomenon seems to be better managed by bilinguals and it becomes conspicuous in early stages of dementia. Such considerations may shed light not just on the relationship between bilingualism and CR, but also on more general mechanisms of cognitive compensation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noelia Calvo
- School of Philosophy, Humanities and Arts, Institute of Philosophy, National University of San JuanSan Juan, Argentina
- Cognitive Psychology of Language and Psycholinguistics Research Group, Laboratory of Cognitive Psychology, CIPSI (CIECS-CONICET), National University of CórdobaCórdoba, Argentina
| | - Adolfo M. García
- Laboratory of Experimental Psychology and Neuroscience, Institute of Cognitive Neurology, Favaloro UniversityBuenos Aires, Argentina
- National Scientific and Technical Research CouncilBuenos Aires, Argentina
- Faculty of Elementary and Special Education, National University of CuyoMendoza, Argentina
- UDP-INECO Foundation Core on Neuroscience, Diego Portales UniversitySantiago, Chile
| | - Laura Manoiloff
- Cognitive Psychology of Language and Psycholinguistics Research Group, Laboratory of Cognitive Psychology, CIPSI (CIECS-CONICET), National University of CórdobaCórdoba, Argentina
| | - Agustín Ibáñez
- Laboratory of Experimental Psychology and Neuroscience, Institute of Cognitive Neurology, Favaloro UniversityBuenos Aires, Argentina
- National Scientific and Technical Research CouncilBuenos Aires, Argentina
- UDP-INECO Foundation Core on Neuroscience, Diego Portales UniversitySantiago, Chile
- Universidad Autónoma del CaribeBarranquilla, Colombia
- Centre of Excellence in Cognition and its Disorders, Australian Research CouncilSydney, NSW, Australia
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14
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15
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Solchenberger B, Russell C, Kremmer E, Haass C, Schmid B. Granulin knock out zebrafish lack frontotemporal lobar degeneration and neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis pathology. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0118956. [PMID: 25785851 PMCID: PMC4365039 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0118956] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2014] [Accepted: 01/26/2015] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Loss of function mutations in granulin (GRN) are linked to two distinct neurological disorders, frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD) and neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis (NCL). It is so far unknown how a complete loss of GRN in NCL and partial loss of GRN in FTLD can result in such distinct diseases. In zebrafish, there are two GRN homologues, Granulin A (Grna) and Granulin B (Grnb). We have generated stable Grna and Grnb loss of function zebrafish mutants by zinc finger nuclease mediated genome editing. Surprisingly, the grna and grnb single and double mutants display neither spinal motor neuron axonopathies nor a reduced number of myogenic progenitor cells as previously reported for Grna and Grnb knock down embryos. Additionally, grna−/−;grnb−/− double mutants have no obvious FTLD- and NCL-related biochemical and neuropathological phenotypes. Taken together, the Grna and Grnb single and double knock out zebrafish lack any obvious morphological, pathological and biochemical phenotypes. Loss of zebrafish Grna and Grnb might therefore either be fully compensated or only become symptomatic upon additional challenge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Solchenberger
- Adolf-Butenandt-Institute—Biochemistry, Ludwig-Maximilians University Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Claire Russell
- Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, London, United Kingdom
| | - Elisabeth Kremmer
- Institute of Molecular Immunology, Helmholtz Center Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Christian Haass
- Adolf-Butenandt-Institute—Biochemistry, Ludwig-Maximilians University Munich, Munich, Germany
- Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy), Munich, Germany
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Bettina Schmid
- Adolf-Butenandt-Institute—Biochemistry, Ludwig-Maximilians University Munich, Munich, Germany
- Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy), Munich, Germany
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Munich, Munich, Germany
- * E-mail:
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Pievani M, Paternicò D, Benussi L, Binetti G, Orlandini A, Cobelli M, Magnaldi S, Ghidoni R, Frisoni GB. Pattern of structural and functional brain abnormalities in asymptomatic granulin mutation carriers. Alzheimers Dement 2014; 10:S354-S363.e1. [PMID: 24418059 DOI: 10.1016/j.jalz.2013.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2013] [Revised: 08/19/2013] [Accepted: 09/05/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND To investigate the patterns of brain atrophy, white matter (WM) tract changes, and functional connectivity (FC) abnormalities in asymptomatic granulin (GRN) mutation carriers. METHODS Ten cognitively normal subjects (five mutation carriers, GRN+; years to estimated disease onset: 12±7; five mutation noncarriers, GRN-) underwent a clinical and imaging (structural, diffusion tensor, and resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging) assessment. Brain atrophy was measured with cortical thickness analysis, WM abnormalities with tract-based spatial statistics, and FC with independent component analysis. RESULTS GRN+ showed smaller cortical thickness than GRN- in the right orbitofrontal and precentral gyrus and left rostral middle frontal gyrus. WM tracts abnormalities were limited to increased axial diffusivity in the right cingulum, superior longitudinal fasciculus, and corticospinal tract. There were no differences in FC of resting-state networks. CONCLUSION Brain atrophy and WM tract abnormalities in frontal-parietal circuits can be detected at least a decade before the estimated symptom onset in asymptomatic mutation carriers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michela Pievani
- Laboratory of Epidemiology, Neuroimaging and Telemedicine, IRCCS Istituto Centro San Giovanni di Dio, Fatebenefratelli, Brescia, Italy
| | - Donata Paternicò
- Laboratory of Epidemiology, Neuroimaging and Telemedicine, IRCCS Istituto Centro San Giovanni di Dio, Fatebenefratelli, Brescia, Italy
| | - Luisa Benussi
- NeuroBioGen Lab-Memory Clinic, IRCCS Istituto Centro San Giovanni di Dio, Fatebenefratelli, Brescia, Italy
| | - Giuliano Binetti
- NeuroBioGen Lab-Memory Clinic, IRCCS Istituto Centro San Giovanni di Dio, Fatebenefratelli, Brescia, Italy
| | - Alberto Orlandini
- Neuroradiology and Angiology Unit, Fondazione Poliambulanza, Brescia, Italy
| | - Milena Cobelli
- Neuroradiology and Angiology Unit, Fondazione Poliambulanza, Brescia, Italy
| | - Silvia Magnaldi
- Neuroradiology and Angiology Unit, Fondazione Poliambulanza, Brescia, Italy
| | - Roberta Ghidoni
- Proteomics Unit, IRCCS Istituto Centro San Giovanni di Dio, Fatebenefratelli, Brescia, Italy
| | - Giovanni B Frisoni
- Laboratory of Epidemiology, Neuroimaging and Telemedicine, IRCCS Istituto Centro San Giovanni di Dio, Fatebenefratelli, Brescia, Italy; Memory Clinic and LANVIE - Laboratory of Neuroimaging of Aging, University Hospitals and University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland.
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17
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Translational proteomics in Alzheimer's disease and related disorders. Clin Biochem 2013; 46:480-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2012.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2012] [Revised: 10/08/2012] [Accepted: 10/11/2012] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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18
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Fuxe K, Agnati LF, Mora F. Brain integration: from networks to the cellular-molecular level. Brain Res 2012; 1476:1-2. [PMID: 23021761 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2012.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2012] [Accepted: 06/11/2012] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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19
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Ferrari R, Mok K, Moreno JH, Cosentino S, Goldman J, Pietrini P, Mayeux R, Tierney MC, Kapogiannis D, Jicha GA, Murrell JR, Ghetti B, Wassermann EM, Grafman J, Hardy J, Huey ED, Momeni P. Screening for C9ORF72 repeat expansion in FTLD. Neurobiol Aging 2012; 33:1850.e1-11. [PMID: 22459598 PMCID: PMC3743244 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2012.02.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2012] [Revised: 02/14/2012] [Accepted: 02/15/2012] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
In the present study we aimed to determine the prevalence of C9ORF72 GGGGCC hexanucleotide expansion in our cohort of 53 frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD) patients and 174 neurologically normal controls. We identified the hexanucleotide repeat, in the pathogenic range, in 4 (2 bv-frontotemporal dementia (FTD) and 2 FTD-amyotrophic lateral sclerosis [ALS]) out of 53 patients and 1 neurologically normal control. Interestingly, 2 of the C9ORF72 expansion carriers also carried 2 novel missense mutations in GRN (Y294C) and in PSEN-2(I146V). Further, 1 of the C9ORF72 expansion carriers, for whom pathology was available, showed amyloid plaques and tangles in addition to TAR (trans-activation response) DNA-binding protein (TDP)-43 pathology. In summary, our findings suggest that the hexanucleotide expansion is probably associated with ALS, FTD, or FTD-ALS and occasional comorbid conditions such as Alzheimer's disease. These findings are novel and need to be cautiously interpreted and most importantly replicated in larger numbers of samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raffaele Ferrari
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics, Department of Internal Medicine, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, 3601 4th St. STOP 9410, Lubbock, Texas ,79430, USA
- Institute of Neurology, University College London, Queen Sq., London WC1N 3BG, United Kingdom
| | - Kin Mok
- Institute of Neurology, University College London, Queen Sq., London WC1N 3BG, United Kingdom
| | - Jorge H. Moreno
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics, Department of Internal Medicine, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, 3601 4th St. STOP 9410, Lubbock, Texas ,79430, USA
| | - Stephanie Cosentino
- Taub Institute for Research on Alzheimer’s Disease and the Aging Brain The Gertrude H. Sergievsky Center Columbia University 630 West 168th Street P&S Box 16 New York, NY 10032
| | - Jill Goldman
- Taub Institute for Research on Alzheimer’s Disease and the Aging Brain The Gertrude H. Sergievsky Center Columbia University 630 West 168th Street P&S Box 16 New York, NY 10032
| | - Pietro Pietrini
- Laboratory of Clinical Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Pisa Medical School, Pisa (Italy)
| | - Richard Mayeux
- Taub Institute for Research on Alzheimer’s Disease and the Aging Brain The Gertrude H. Sergievsky Center Columbia University 630 West 168th Street P&S Box 16 New York, NY 10032
| | | | - Dimitrios Kapogiannis
- Cognitive Neuroscience Section, NINDS/NIH, Bethesda, MD
- Clinical Research Branch, National Institute on Aging/National, Institutes of Health (NIA/NIH)
| | - Gregory A. Jicha
- Sanders-Brown Center on Aging, University of Kentucky Alzheimer’s Disease Center, 800 South Limestone Street, Lexington, KY 40536-0230
| | - Jill R Murrell
- Indiana Alzheimer Disease Center, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis
| | - Bernardino Ghetti
- Indiana Alzheimer Disease Center, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis
| | | | - Jordan Grafman
- Kessler Foundation Research Center 1199 Pleasant Valley Way West Orange, New Jersey 07052
- Cognitive Neuroscience Section, NINDS/NIH, Bethesda, MD
| | - John Hardy
- Institute of Neurology, University College London, Queen Sq., London WC1N 3BG, United Kingdom
| | - Edward D. Huey
- Taub Institute for Research on Alzheimer’s Disease and the Aging Brain The Gertrude H. Sergievsky Center Columbia University 630 West 168th Street P&S Box 16 New York, NY 10032
- Cognitive Neuroscience Section, NINDS/NIH, Bethesda, MD
| | - Parastoo Momeni
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics, Department of Internal Medicine, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, 3601 4th St. STOP 9410, Lubbock, Texas ,79430, USA
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