Ketamine reversed short-term memory impairment and depressive-like behavior in animal model of Parkinson's disease

Repurposing Ketamine in the Therapy of Depression and Depression-Related Disorders: Recent Advances and Future Potential

Depression represents a prevalent and enduring mental disorder of significant concern within the clinical domain. Extensive research indicates that depression is very complex, with many interconnected pathways involved. Most research related to depression focuses on monoamines, neurotrophic factors, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, tryptophan metabolism, energy metabolism, mitochondrial function, the gut-brain axis, glial cell-mediated inflammation, myelination, homeostasis, and brain neural networks. However, recently, Ketamine, an ionotropic N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist, has been discovered to have rapid antidepressant effects in patients, leading to novel and successful treatment approaches for mood disorders. This review aims to summarize the latest findings and insights into various signaling pathways and systems observed in depression patients and animal models, providing a more comprehensive view of the neurobiology of anxious-depressive-like behavior. Specifically, it highlights the key mechanisms of ketamine as a rapid-acting antidepressant, aiming to enhance the treatment of neuropsychiatric disorders. Moreover, we discuss the potential of ketamine as a prophylactic or therapeutic intervention for stress-related psychiatric disorders.

Exploring the multifaceted potential of (R)-ketamine beyond antidepressant applications

(R, S)- and (S)-ketamine have made significant progress in the treatment of treatment-resistant depression (TRD) and have become a research focus in recent years. However, they both have risks of psychomimetic effects, dissociative effects, and abuse liability, which limit their clinical use. Recent preclinical and clinical studies have shown that (R)-ketamine has a more efficient and lasting antidepressant effect with fewer side effects compared to (R, S)- and (S)-ketamine. However, a recent small-sample randomized controlled trial found that although (R)-ketamine has a lower incidence of adverse reactions in adult TRD treatment, its antidepressant efficacy is not superior to the placebo group, indicating its antidepressant advantage still needs further verification and clarification. Moreover, an increasing body of research suggests that (R)-ketamine might also have significant applications in the prevention and treatment of medical fields or diseases such as cognitive disorders, perioperative anesthesia, ischemic stroke, Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, osteoporosis, substance use disorders, inflammatory diseases, COVID-19, and organophosphate poisoning. This article briefly reviews the mechanism of action and research on antidepressants related to (R)-ketamine, fully revealing its application potential and development prospects, and providing some references and assistance for subsequent expanded research.

Simultaneous treatment with cells and rosemary extract ameliorates 6-OHDA-induced toxicity in the hippocampus of mice

In this study, we delved into the hippocampal region to understand the effects of adipose stem cells (ADSCs) and rosemary extract (RE). Our main objective was to explore how these substances influence spatial memory, neurotrophins, and changes in antioxidant enzymes. Moreover, we meticulously investigated the impact of dopamine deficiency, a notable characteristic linked with Parkinson's disease (PD), on memory impairment. This study comprised five groups of Wistar rats - all male, all selected randomly. We labeled two of these gatherings "lesion" (L) and "sham" (SH). Each got injections in the bilateral form with 6 μg - one group getting saline, while another got 6-OHDA. From couple weeks before the neurotoxin injection to 8 weeks later on, our lesion cohort was treated with rosemary at a dosage rate of 50 mg/kg body weight - let's call it RE for simplicity sake. Moreover, there is also this other lot, designated as cell-transplanted lesion group or catchy exercise (CE) as we prefer to interpret them; they had cell transplants conducted exactly 7 days after receiving their respective injections. Bringing up the rear, we got a group treated with both cell transplant and rosemary (CE+R). We performed spatial memory tests at 4 weeks, then again at 8. At the end of eighth week, the brains were extracted for q-PCR, enzymatic and immunohistochemical studies. Turning our gaze toward a comparison between the CE+R and CE groups versus the L group, we spot an intriguing drop in escape latency time. There is also more time spent in quadrants. Digging deeper into this matter, the CE+R bunch unveiled a clear surge when it comes to the expression of four genes, namely NGF, BDNF, NT3, and NT4! This was notable especially while comparing with both R and even other fellows from its very own broader group - CE. In a bit complex bit related to enzyme activity now, there is some good news as well for those in favor of potent antioxidants such as GPx or SOD. CE + R group, showed a significant increase of GPX and SOD enzymes, compared to the SH and L groups, and a significant decrease of MDA activity as compared to other treated groups. A significant decrease of escape latency and increase of time in quadrant were observed in the CE+R and CE groups compared to L group. What's more, the levels of MDA in the CE+R group plummeted significantly when set up against the SH group. Wrapping things up, a definite downscale was observed in the density of GFAP-positive cells throughout different regions located within the hippocampus; this decline presented itself not solely in treatment groups but gripped onto those falling under SH as well, especially when compared to its comrade - the L group. Using ADSCs and taking RE orally have shown promising results in improving memory issues linked with PD.

Exploring Parkinson's Disease-Associated Depression: Role of Inflammation on the Noradrenergic and Serotonergic Pathways

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a multifactorial disease, with genetic and environmental factors contributing to the disease onset. Classically, PD is a movement disorder characterized by the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the nigrostriatal pathway and intraneuronal aggregates mainly constituted of the protein α-synuclein. However, PD patients also display non-motor symptoms, including depression, which have been linked to functional abnormalities of non-dopaminergic neurons, including serotonergic and noradrenergic ones. Thus, through this comprehensive literature review, we shed light on the noradrenergic and serotonergic impairment linked to depression in PD, focusing on the putative involvement of inflammatory mechanisms.

Pharmacological and Non-Pharmacological Treatments for Depression in Parkinson's Disease: An Updated Review

Depression represents one of the most common non-motor disorders in Parkinson's disease (PD) and it has been related to worse life quality, higher levels of disability, and cognitive impairment, thereby majorly affecting not only the patients but also their caregivers. Available pharmacological therapeutic options for depression in PD mainly include selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors, and tricyclic antidepressants; meanwhile, agents acting on dopaminergic pathways used for motor symptoms, such as levodopa, dopaminergic agonists, and monoamine oxidase B (MAO-B) inhibitors, may also provide beneficial antidepressant effects. Recently, there is a growing interest in non-pharmacological interventions, including cognitive behavioral therapy; physical exercise, including dance and mind-body exercises, such as yoga, tai chi, and qigong; acupuncture; therapeutic massage; music therapy; active therapy; repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS); and electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) for refractory cases. However, the optimal treatment approach for PD depression is uncertain, its management may be challenging, and definite guidelines are also lacking. It is still unclear which of these interventions is the most appropriate and for which PD stage under which circumstances. Herein, we aim to provide an updated comprehensive review of both pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatments for depression in PD, focusing on recent clinical trials, systematic reviews, and meta-analyses. Finally, we discuss the pharmacological agents that are currently under investigation at a clinical level, as well as future approaches based on the pathophysiological mechanisms underlying the onset of depression in PD.

Mood disturbances in Parkinson's disease: From prodromal origins to application of animal models

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a complex illness with a constellation of environmental insults and genetic vulnerabilities being implicated. Strikingly, many studies only focus on the cardinal motor symptoms of the disease and fail to appreciate the major non-motor features which typically occur early in the disease process and are debilitating. Common comorbid psychiatric features, notably clinical depression, as well as anxiety and sleep disorders are thought to emerge before the onset of prominent motor deficits. In this review, we will delve into the prodromal stage of PD and how early neuropsychiatric pathology might unfold, followed by later motor disturbances. It is also of interest to discuss how animal models of PD capture the complexity of the illness, including depressive-like characteristics along with motor impairment. It remains to be determined how the underlying PD disease processes contributes to such comorbidity. But some of the environmental toxicants and microbial pathogens implicated in PD might instigate pro-inflammatory effects favoring α-synuclein accumulation and damage to brainstem neurons fueling the evolution of mood disturbances. We posit that comprehensive animal-based research approaches are needed to capture the complexity and time-dependent nature of the primary and co-morbid symptoms. This will allow for the possibility of early intervention with more novel and targeted treatments that fit with not only individual patient variability, but also with changes that occur over time with the evolution of the disease.

Promising biomarkers and therapeutic targets for the management of Parkinson's disease: recent advancements and contemporary research

Parkinson's disease (PD) is one of the progressive neurological diseases which affect around 10 million population worldwide. The clinical manifestation of motor symptoms in PD patients appears later when most dopaminergic neurons have degenerated. Thus, for better management of PD, the development of accurate biomarkers for the early prognosis of PD is imperative. The present work will discuss the potential biomarkers from various attributes covering biochemical, microRNA, and neuroimaging aspects (α-synuclein, DJ-1, UCH-L1, β-glucocerebrosidase, BDNF, etc.) for diagnosis, recent development in PD management, and major limitations with current and conventional anti-Parkinson therapy. This manuscript summarizes potential biomarkers and therapeutic targets, based on available preclinical and clinical evidence, for better management of PD.

Cannabidiol enhances the antinociceptive effects of morphine and attenuates opioid-induced tolerance in the chronic constriction injury model

Neuropathic pain (NP) is a complex health problem that includes sensorial manifestations such as evoked and ongoing pain. Cannabidiol (CBD) has shown potential in the treatment of NP and the combination between opioids and cannabinoids has provided promising results on pain relief. Thus, our study aimed to investigate the effect of treatment combination between CBD and morphine on evoked and ongoing pain, and the effect of CBD on morphine-induced tolerance in the model of chronic constriction injury (CCI) of the sciatic nerve in rats. Mechanical thresholds (i.e., evoked pain) were evaluated before and 7 days after surgery. We also employed a 4-day conditioned place preference (CPP) protocol, to evaluate relief of ongoing pain (6-9 days after surgery). Treatment with morphine (2 and 4 mg/kg) or CBD (30 mg/kg) induced a significant antinociceptive effect on evoked pain. The combination of CBD (30 mg/kg) and morphine (1 mg/kg) produced an enhanced antinociceptive effect, when compared to morphine alone (1 mg/Kg). Treatment with morphine (1 and 2 mg/kg) or CBD (30 mg/kg) alone failed to induce significant scores in the CPP test. However, combined treatment of CBD (30 mg/kg) and morphine (1 mg/kg) provided significant positive scores, increased the number of entrances in the drug-paired chamber in the CPP test and did not alter locomotor activity in rats. Lastly, treatment with CBD partially attenuated morphine-induced tolerance. In summary, our results support the indication of CBD as an adjuvant to opioid therapy for the attenuation of NP and opioid-induced analgesic tolerance.

Metformin improves depressive-like behavior in experimental Parkinson's disease by inducing autophagy in the substantia nigra and hippocampus

Parkinson's disease (PD) remains a disease of little known etiology. In addition to the motor symptoms, depression is present in about 40% of patients, contributing to the loss of quality of life. Recently, the involvement of the autophagy mechanism in the pathogenesis of depression has been studied, in addition to its involvement in PD as well. In this study, we tested the effects of metformin, an antidiabetic drug also with antidepressant effects, on depressive-like behavior in a rotenone-induced PD model and on the autophagy process. Mice 8-week-old male C57BL/6 were induced with rotenone for 20 consecutive days (2.5 mg/kg/day) and treated with metformin (200 mg/kg/day) from the 5th day of induction. All the animals were submitted to rotarod, sucrose preference and tail suspension tests. After euthanasia, the substantia nigra and hippocampus were removed for analysis by western blotting or fixed and analyzed by immunofluorescence. The results show that there was an impairment of autophagy in animals induced by rotenone both in nigral and extranigral regions as well as a depressive-like behavior. Metformin was able to inhibit depressive-like behavior and increase signaling pathway proteins, transcription factors and autophagosome-forming proteins, thus inducing autophagy in both the hippocampus and the substantia nigra. In conclusion, we show that metformin has an antidepressant effect in a rotenone-induced PD model, which may result, at least in part, from the induction of the autophagy process.

The effect of ketamine on anhedonia: improvements in dimensions of anticipatory, consummatory, and motivation-related reward deficits

Anhedonia is a common, persistent, and disabling condition. However, available therapeutics primarily focus on the reduction of depressive and negative symptoms rather than amelioration of deficits in positive affect. As such, extant drug treatments remain largely ineffective in treating symptoms of anhedonia. Ketamine is a rapid-acting and novel therapeutic treatment for treatment-resistant depression, which has also been demonstrated to attenuate symptoms of anhedonia. However, the literature on the anti-anhedonic effects of ketamine is limited-especially within independent dimensions of this symptom domain. Herein, this review examined the impact of ketamine treatment on anhedonia and its dimensions on anticipatory, consummatory, and motivation-related reward deficits. Overall, the findings have shown a trend towards symptom reduction and/or improvements in anhedonia and their respective subdomains, in both human and preclinical studies, as well as its potential to provide additional benefit in reducing suicidality and improving quality-of-life. Although further research is required in understanding the long-term efficacy and mechanism, ketamine may provide an effective and rapid-acting therapeutic in an otherwise unmet domain.

(R)-ketamine as prophylactic and therapeutic drug for neurological disorders: beyond depression

Neurological disorders are the leading cause of disability and the second leading cause of death worldwide. The increasing social and economic burdens of neurological disorders are driven by global population growth and aging. Depression is a common psychiatric symptom in numerous neurological disorders. It is also a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease (AD) and other dementias, Parkinson's disease (PD), and stroke. The rapid-acting and sustained antidepressant actions of (R,S)-ketamine for severe depression was accidentally discovered. Interestingly, (R)-ketamine has greater potency and longer-lasting antidepressant-like effects than (S)-ketamine in rodents. Importantly, its side effects in rodents and humans are lower than those of (R,S)-ketamine and (S)-ketamine. Furthermore, (R)-ketamine could elicit beneficial actions in various rodent models of neurological disorders, including PD, multiple sclerosis (MS), and stroke. In this article, we review the potential of (R)-ketamine as a prophylactic or therapeutic drug for neurological disorders including AD and other dementias, PD, MS, and stroke.

Striatal neuronal ensembles reveal differential actions of amantadine and clozapine to ameliorate mice L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia

Amantadine and clozapine have proved to reduce abnormal involuntary movements (AIMs) in preclinical and clinical studies of L-DOPA-Induced Dyskinesias (LID). Even though both drugs decrease AIMs, they may have different action mechanisms by using different receptors and signaling profiles. Here we asked whether there are differences in how they modulate neuronal activity of multiple striatal neurons within the striatal microcircuit at histological level during the dose-peak of L-DOPA in ex-vivo brain slices obtained from dyskinetic mice. To answer this question, we used calcium imaging to record the activity of dozens of neurons of the dorsolateral striatum before and after drugs administration in vitro. We also developed an analysis framework to extract encoding insights from calcium imaging data by quantifying neuronal activity, identifying neuronal ensembles by linking neurons that coactivate using hierarchical cluster analysis and extracting network parameters using Graph Theory. The results show that while both drugs reduce LIDs scores behaviorally in a similar way, they have several different and specific actions on modulating the dyskinetic striatal microcircuit. The extracted features were highly accurate in separating amantadine and clozapine effects by means of principal components analysis (PCA) and support vector machine (SVM) algorithms. These results predict possible synergistic actions of amantadine and clozapine on the dyskinetic striatal microcircuit establishing a framework for a bioassay to test novel antidyskinetic drugs or treatments in vitro.

Metformin and fluoxetine improve depressive-like behavior in a murine model of Parkinsońs disease through the modulation of neuroinflammation, neurogenesis and neuroplasticity

Thereabout 30-40% of patients with Parkinson's Disease (PD) also have depression contributing to the loss of quality of life. Among the patients who treat depression, about 50% do not show significant improvement due to the limited efficacy of the treatment. So far, there are no effective disease-modifying treatments that can impede its progression. The current clinical approach is based on symptom management. Nonetheless, the reuse of drugs with excellent safety profiles represents an attractive alternative strategy for treating of different clinical aspects of PD. In this study, we evaluated the effects of metformin separately and associated with fluoxetine on depressive like-behavior and motor alterations in experimental Parkinson's disease. C57BL6 mice were induced with rotenone (2.5 mg/kg/day) for 20 days and treated with metformin (200 mg/kg/day) and fluoxetine (10 mg/kg/day) from the 5th day of induction. The animals were submitted to Sucrose Preference, Tail Suspension, and rotarod tests. Hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, and substantia nigra were dissected for molecular and morphological analysis. Metformin and fluoxetine prevented depressive-like behavior and improved motor impairment and increased TH nigral positive cells. Metformin and fluoxetine also reduced IBA-1 and GFAP positive cells in the hippocampus. Moreover, metformin reduced the phospho-NF-kB, IL-1β in the prefrontal cortex and iNOS levels in the hippocampus. Both metformin and fluoxetine increased neurogenesis by increasing KI67, but only the combined treatment increased neuronal survival by NeuN positive cells in the hippocampus. In addition, fluoxetine reduced cell death, decreasing caspase-3 and PARP-1 levels. Lastly, metformin potentiated the effect of fluoxetine on neuroplasticity by increasing BDNF positive cells. Metformin has antidepressant and antiparkinsonian potential due to anti-inflammatory neurogenic, and neuroplasticity-inducing effects when combined with fluoxetine.

Ketamine enhances novel object recognition memory reconsolidation via the BDNF/TrkB pathway in mice

In addition to the antidepressant properties of ketamine at subanesthetic doses, studies have revealed ketamine's influence on memory acquisition, consolidation, and reconsolidation. The effects of acute low-dose ketamine administration on conditioned memory have been investigated extensively in rodents through conditioned fear memory and morphine-induced conditioned place preference. In contrast to conditioned memory, the novel object recognition (NOR) task assesses the natural format of memory by exploiting the rodents' natural preference for novelty. Acute low-dose ketamine administration impairs NOR acquisition and consolidation, but its influence on reconsolidation remains unclear. We investigated the issue as well as the involvement of BDNF/TrkB pathway in this process by administering ketamine (i.p., 10 mg/kg, immediately or 6 h after reactivation, or without reactivation) and ANA-12 (i.p., 0.5 mg/kg, 5 min after ketamine/vehicle administration). ANA-12 is a selective antagonist for the BDNF TrkB receptor. Ketamine administration, immediately after (rather than without) reactivation, significantly increased the NOR preference index, thus suggesting an enhanced memory reconsolidation rather than consolidation. Ketamine exerted no significant effect when administered 6 h after reactivation, thereby suggesting 6 h to be an effective time window. ANA-12 administration significantly reduced the ketamine-induced NOR preference index increase, thus suggesting that the blockage of ketamine improves NOR reconsolidation. However, this blockage had no significant effect on the ketamine-induced hippocampal BDNF level increase. In conclusion, acute low-dose ketamine administration improves NOR memory reconsolidation by increasing hippocampal BDNF levels and subsequent BDNF binding to the TrkB receptor.

Psychedelic-inspired approaches for treating neurodegenerative disorders

Psychedelics are increasingly being recognized for their potential to treat a wide range of brain disorders including depression, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and substance use disorder. Their broad therapeutic potential might result from an ability to rescue cortical atrophy common to many neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative diseases by impacting neurotrophic factor gene expression, activating neuronal growth and survival mechanisms, and modulating the immune system. While the therapeutic potential of psychedelics has not yet been extended to neurodegenerative disorders, we provide evidence suggesting that approaches based on psychedelic science might prove useful for treating these diseases. The primary target of psychedelics, the 5-HT_2A receptor, plays key roles in cortical neuron health and is dysregulated in Alzheimer's disease. Moreover, evidence suggests that psychedelics and related compounds could prove useful for treating the behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia (BPSD). While more research is needed to probe the effects of psychedelics in models of neurodegenerative diseases, the robust effects of these compounds on structural and functional neuroplasticity and inflammation clearly warrant further investigation.

Antidepressant-Like Properties of Intrastriatal Botulinum Neurotoxin-A Injection in a Unilateral 6-OHDA Rat Model of Parkinson's Disease

Parkinson’s patients often suffer from depression and anxiety, for which there are no optimal treatments. Hemiparkinsonian (hemi-PD) rats were used to test whether intrastriatal Botulinum neurotoxin-A (BoNT-A) application could also have antidepressant-like properties in addition to the known improvement of motor performance. To quantify depression- and anxiety-like behavior, the forced swim test, tail suspension test, open field test, and elevated plus maze test were applied to hemi-PD rats injected with BoNT-A or vehicle. Furthermore, we correlated the results in the forced swim test, open field test, and elevated plus maze test with the rotational behavior induced by apomorphine and amphetamine. Hemi-PD rats did not show significant anxiety-like behavior as compared with Sham 6-OHDA- + Sham BoNT-A-injected as well as with non-injected rats. However, hemi-PD rats demonstrated increased depression-like behaviors compared with Sham- or non-injected rats; this was seen by increased struggling frequency and increased immobility frequency. Hemi-PD rats intrastriatally injected with BoNT-A exhibited reduced depression-like behavior compared with the respective vehicle-receiving hemi-PD animals. The significant effects of intrastriatally applied BoNT-A seen in the forced swim test are reminiscent of those found after various antidepressant drug therapies. Our data correspond with the efficacy of BoNT-A treatment of glabellar frown lines in treating patients with major depression and suggest that also intrastriatal injected BoNT-A may have some antidepressant-like effect on hemi-PD.

Mood Disorders and Anxiety in Parkinson's Disease: Current Concepts

Mood disorders and anxiety significantly impact the prognosis and disease course of Parkinson's disease. Non-motor symptoms of Parkinson's disease such as apathy, anhedonia, and fatigue overlap with diagnostic criteria for anxiety and depression, thus making accurate diagnosis of mood disorders in Parkinson's disease patients difficult. Furthermore, treatment options for mood disorders can produce motor complications leading to poor adherence and impaired quality of life in Parkinson's disease patients. This review aims to clarify the current state of diagnostic and treatment options pertaining to anxiety and mood disorders in Parkinson's disease. It explores both the pharmacologic and non-pharmacologic treatment modalities for various mood disorders in comorbid Parkinson's disease with a brief discussion of the future outlook of the field given the current state of the literature.

Emerging Perspectives in the Diagnosis and Management of Depression and Psychosis in Parkinson's Disease

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