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Schellong J, Schellong A, Gast U, Frommberger U, Jatzko A, Schäfer I. [Trauma and memory-A contribution to the current debate in law and psychotherapy]. DER NERVENARZT 2024; 95:608-615. [PMID: 38709253 PMCID: PMC11222194 DOI: 10.1007/s00115-024-01665-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/10/2024] [Indexed: 05/07/2024]
Abstract
The recall of memories of past events, experiences and emotions is a complex process. When experiencing traumatic events, as is the case with sexual violence, a host of additional complexities and difficulties arise. This becomes especially important in court cases which rely mostly or exclusively on the testimony of the victim, where the problem of the fallibility of memory takes center stage. Some research studies emphasize the possibility of inducing, altering or suppressing memories, especially in the context of psychotherapy. This has led to the unfortunate reality that the testimony of victims who have undergone psychotherapy is often considered to be unreliable. This in turn can lead to the impression that a decision has to be made between treatment of the adverse effects of traumatic events and maximizing the chances for a conviction of the perpetrator in court. This article introduces some central concepts of our current understanding of memory and gives an overview of the relevant scientific literature and debate. Following this, it examines the dilemma as it pertains to the different groups of all involved parties (i.e., victims, members of the judiciary and psychotherapists). Lastly, it proposes a framework of how to approach a solution to this problem by focusing on research in critical areas, expansion of therapy guidelines and documentation procedures as well as communication of these efforts to all parties involved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Schellong
- Klinik und Poliklinik für Psychotherapie und Psychosomatik, Medizinische Fakultät, Technische Universität Dresden, Fetscherstraße 74, 01307, Dresden, Deutschland.
| | | | - Ursula Gast
- Praxis für Psychosomatische Medizin, Mittelangeln, Deutschland
| | - Ulrich Frommberger
- Klinik für Psychiatrie und Psychotherapie, Universitätsklinikum Freiburg, Medizinische Fakultät, Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, Freiburg, Deutschland
- Privatpraxis, Sölden, Deutschland
| | | | - Ingo Schäfer
- Klinik für Psychiatrie und Psychotherapie, Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Deutschland
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2
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Chang M, Brainerd CJ. Effects of emotional ambiguity and emotional intensity on true and false memory. Mem Cognit 2024:10.3758/s13421-024-01559-y. [PMID: 38691262 DOI: 10.3758/s13421-024-01559-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/17/2024] [Indexed: 05/03/2024]
Abstract
Whereas the effects of emotional intensity (the perceived strength of an item's valence or arousal) have long been studied in true- and false-memory research, emotional ambiguity (the uncertainty that attaches to perceived emotional intensity) has only been studied recently. Available evidence suggests that emotional ambiguity has reliable effects on true memory that are distinct from those of emotional intensity. However, those findings are mostly restricted to recall, and the effects of emotional ambiguity on false memory remain unexplored. The current study addressed both limitations by measuring the effects of emotional ambiguity and emotional intensity on true and false recognition. In two experiments, we manipulated valence ambiguity and valence intensity (Experiment 1) and arousal ambiguity and arousal intensity (Experiment 2) of Deese/Roediger/McDermott lists. Multiple linear regression analyses were conducted for Experiment 1, Experiment 2, and the combined data of the experiments to separate the effects of emotional ambiguity and emotional intensity. Our results showed that both valence ambiguity and arousal ambiguity improved true recognition, and the effects of valence ambiguity remained robust even when controlling for valence intensity, arousal intensity, and arousal ambiguity. More importantly, for both valence and arousal, there was an interaction between ambiguity and intensity in false memory. Specifically, we found that valence ambiguity increased false recognition with positive valence, while arousal ambiguity amplified the effect of arousal intensity on false recognition. Our results are discussed in the context of the emotional ambiguity hypothesis and fuzzy-trace theory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minyu Chang
- Department of Psychology, McGill University, 2001 Avenue McGill College, Montréal, QC, H3A 1G1, Canada.
| | - C J Brainerd
- Department of Psychology and Human Neuroscience Institute, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14850, USA
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3
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Otgaar H, Curci A, Mangiulli I, Battista F, Rizzotti E, Sartori G. A court ruled case on therapy-induced false memories. J Forensic Sci 2022; 67:2122-2129. [PMID: 35652501 PMCID: PMC9544012 DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.15073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Revised: 05/04/2022] [Accepted: 05/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
We report on a unique Italian criminal case in which a court ruled that a therapist implanted false memories of abuse in a young girl. Using therapeutic excerpts, we show that the therapist used a multitude of problematic interventions that are all linked to false memory creation. Specifically, an analysis of the therapeutic excerpts showed that across many sessions, the therapist asked highly suggestive questions to the girl, implying that she was abused by her father. In addition, the girl underwent EMDR techniques that have been associated with memory undermining effects. Our analyses showed that although before treatment the girl did not have any recollection of being abused by her father, she gradually started to remember the abuse and identified the father as her abuser during the therapeutic sessions. Our case report clearly shows the danger of suggestive pressure in a therapeutic context causing patients to form false memories of abuse and supports the need to prevent the therapeutic practice of suggestive techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henry Otgaar
- Faculty of Law and Criminology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.,Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Antonietta Curci
- Department of Education, Psychology, Communication, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Bari, Italy
| | - Ivan Mangiulli
- Faculty of Law and Criminology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.,Department of Education, Psychology, Communication, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Bari, Italy
| | - Fabiana Battista
- Faculty of Law and Criminology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.,Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Elisa Rizzotti
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Sartori
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
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4
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Coburn PI, Dogra KK, Rai IK, Bernstein DM. The Trajectory of Targets and Critical Lures in the Deese/Roediger-McDermott Paradigm: A Systematic Review. Front Psychol 2021; 12:718818. [PMID: 34925128 PMCID: PMC8677658 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.718818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2021] [Accepted: 10/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The Deese/Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm has been used extensively to examine false memory. During the study session, participants learn lists of semantically related items (e.g., pillow, blanket, tired, bed), referred to as targets. Critical lures are items which are also associated with the lists but are intentionally omitted from study (e.g., sleep). At test, when asked to remember targets, participants often report false memories for critical lures. Findings from experiments using the DRM show the ease with which false memories develop in the absence of suggestion or misinformation. Given this, it is important to examine factors which influence the generalizability of the findings. One important factor is the persistence of false memory, or how long false memories last. Therefore, we conducted a systemic review to answer this research question: What is the persistence of false memory for specific items in the DRM paradigm? To help answer this question our review had two research objectives: (1) to examine the trajectory of target memory and false memory for critical lures and (2) to examine whether memory for targets exceeded false memory for critical lures. We included empirical articles which tested memory for the same DRM lists with at least two testing sessions. We discuss the results with respect to single-session delays, long-term memory recall and recognition, remember and know judgments for memory, and the effect of development, valence, warning, and connectivity on the trajectory of memory. Overall, the trajectory of targets showed a relatively consistent pattern of decrease across delay. The trajectory of critical lures was inconsistent. The proportion of targets versus critical lures across delay was also inconsistent. Despite the inconsistencies, we conclude that targets and critical lures have a dissimilar trajectory across delay and that critical lures are more persistent than targets. The findings with respect to long-term recall and recognition are consistent with both Fuzzy Trace Theory and Associative-Activation Theory of the DRM effect. The generation of false memory with brief delays (3-4 s) is better explained by Associative-Activation Theory. Examining the connectivity between target items, and critical lures, and the effect that has during study and retrieval, can provide insight into the persistence of false memory for critical lures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia I Coburn
- Department of Psychology, Kwantlen Polytechnic University, Surrey, BC, Canada
| | - Kirandeep K Dogra
- Department of Psychology, Kwantlen Polytechnic University, Surrey, BC, Canada
| | - Iarenjit K Rai
- Department of Psychology, Kwantlen Polytechnic University, Surrey, BC, Canada
| | - Daniel M Bernstein
- Department of Psychology, Kwantlen Polytechnic University, Surrey, BC, Canada.,Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada
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Mangiulli I, Jelicic M, Patihis L, Otgaar H. Believing in dissociative amnesia relates to claiming it: a survey of people's experiences and beliefs about dissociative amnesia. Memory 2021; 29:1362-1374. [PMID: 34637695 DOI: 10.1080/09658211.2021.1987475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Dissociative amnesia is one of the most controversial categories in the field of psychiatry and clinical psychology. Self-reports of dissociative amnesia in the general population, and beliefs about this topic, have so far not been subjected to empirical scrutiny. Here, we surveyed a sample from the general population (N = 1017), revealing that about a tenth (n = 102) claimed to have experienced dissociative amnesia. Some claims pertained to amnesia for traumatic autobiographical experiences (e.g., sexual assault), while other claims reflected memory loss for experiences that can be regarded as non-traumatic or non-stressful (e.g., dissociative amnesia for an anniversary). Importantly, many participants believed in the existence of dissociative amnesia, and those who claimed dissociative amnesia indicated even more belief in this phenomenon than the rest of the sample. Finally, many participants indicated to have at least once claimed to have feigned memory loss in their life, and that they experienced some form of forgetting when trying to retrieve events for which they lied upon. Overall, our findings suggest that claiming dissociative amnesia goes hand in hand with believing in dissociative amnesia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivan Mangiulli
- Faculty of Law, Leuven Institute of Criminology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.,Forensic Psychology Section, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Marko Jelicic
- Forensic Psychology Section, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Lawrence Patihis
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Science and Health, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK
| | - Henry Otgaar
- Faculty of Law, Leuven Institute of Criminology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.,Forensic Psychology Section, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
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Otgaar H, Houben STL, Rassin E, Merckelbach H. Memory and eye movement desensitization and reprocessing therapy: a potentially risky combination in the courtroom. Memory 2021; 29:1254-1262. [PMID: 34404311 DOI: 10.1080/09658211.2021.1966043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Does Eye Movement and Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) therapy affect the accuracy of memories? This recurrent issue in recent memory research bears relevance to expert witness work in the courtroom. In this review, we will argue that several crucial aspects of EMDR may be detrimental to memory. First, research has shown that eye movements undermine the quality and quantity of memory. Specifically, eye movements have been shown to decrease the vividness and emotionality of autobiographical experiences and amplify spontaneous false memory levels. Second, a sizeable proportion of EMDR practitioners endorse the controversial idea of repressed memories and discuss the topic of repressed memory in therapy. Third, in the Dutch EMDR protocol, patients are instructed to select the target image by using flawed metaphors of memory (e.g., memory works as a video). Such instructions may create demand characteristics to the effect that people over-interpret imagery during therapy as veridical memories. Collectively, the corpus of research suggests that several components of EMDR therapy (i.e., performing eye movements, therapist beliefs and therapeutic instructions) may undermine the accuracy of memory, which can be risky if patients, later on, serve as witnesses in legal proceedings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henry Otgaar
- Faculty of Law, Catholic University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.,Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Sanne T L Houben
- Faculty of Law, Catholic University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.,Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Eric Rassin
- Erasmus School of Social and Behavioural Sciences, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Harald Merckelbach
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
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Otgaar H, Howe ML, Dodier O, Lilienfeld SO, Loftus EF, Lynn SJ, Merckelbach H, Patihis L. Belief in Unconscious Repressed Memory Persists. PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2021; 16:454-460. [PMID: 33709851 PMCID: PMC7961636 DOI: 10.1177/1745691621990628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
On the basis of converging research, we concluded that the controversial topic of unconscious blockage of psychological trauma (i.e., repressed memory) remains very much alive in clinical, legal, and academic contexts. In his commentary, Brewin (this issue, p. 443) conducted a cocitation analysis and concluded that scholars do not adhere to the concept of unconscious repression. Furthermore, he argued that previous survey research did not specifically assess unconscious repression. Here, we present critical evidence that runs counter to his claims. First, we inspected his cocitation analysis and found that some scholars support notions that are closely related to unconscious repression. Furthermore, we conducted another analysis on the basis of articles' similarity. Again, we found examples of scholars specifically endorsing unconscious repressed memories. Second, as opposed to what Brewin reports, recent survey research now exists that bears directly on people's beliefs regarding unconscious repression. This work reveals that large percentages of people (e.g., students and eye-movement desensitization and reprocessing [EMDR] clinicians) endorse the concept of unconscious repressed memories. The belief in unconscious repressed memory can continue to contribute to harmful consequences in clinical, legal, and academic domains (e.g., false accusations of abuse).
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Affiliation(s)
- Henry Otgaar
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Section of Forensic Psychology, Maastricht University
- Department of Psychology, City, University of London
- Leuvens Institute for Criminology, Faculty of Law, KU Leuven
| | - Mark L. Howe
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Section of Forensic Psychology, Maastricht University
- Department of Psychology, City, University of London
| | | | | | | | - Steven Jay Lynn
- Laboratory of Consciousness, Cognition, and Psychopathology, Binghamton University
| | - Harald Merckelbach
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Section of Forensic Psychology, Maastricht University
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8
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Houben STL, Otgaar H, Roelofs J. Psychological Myths as Therapeutic Instructions in Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing. THE JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 2021; 155:129-139. [PMID: 33539235 DOI: 10.1080/00223980.2020.1839374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The Dutch protocol for Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) uses two psychological myths as part of the therapeutic instruction: memory works as a video camera and individuals can have a photographic memory. This study explored how participants experience and evaluate such instructions and if these instructions affect their beliefs on memory. Participants received a video, photo, or a control instruction. Participants indicated on a visual analog scale how vivid and emotional they expected to recall the traumatic memory, how credible the therapeutic instruction was, and how reliable they would consider a therapist providing such an instruction. Next, participants completed a memory belief survey. Participants who received the video instruction were most likely to expect to vividly recall a memory. The credibility of the instructions and the reliability of the therapist providing the instruction were at chance level, which might pose problems for the therapeutic alliance and therapy outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Henry Otgaar
- Maastricht University.,Catholic University Leuven
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9
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Kenchel JM, Domagalski K, Butler BJ, Loftus EF. The messy landscape of eye movements and false memories. Memory 2020; 30:678-685. [PMID: 33356911 DOI: 10.1080/09658211.2020.1862234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Eye-Movement Desensitisation and Reprocessing (EMDR) therapy is a common treatment for PTSD. However, skeptics like James Ost question the theoretical underpinnings, highlight inconsistency of empirical findings surrounding the efficacy of such therapy, and warn against unknown drawbacks. Little is known about the impact of the eye movements, a critical component in EMDR, on susceptibility to false memories, and the existing literature is contradictory. We review the literature and present new findings to help tell the story of the effects of eye movements on memory. Taken as a whole, this small body of work suggests that eye movements do not reliably affect susceptibility to misinformation, nor do they appear to enhance memory, but they do seem to increase spontaneous false memories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jillian M Kenchel
- Department of Psychological Science, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Kirsten Domagalski
- Department of Psychological Science, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
| | | | - Elizabeth F Loftus
- Department of Psychological Science, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
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10
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Leer A, Engelhard IM. Side effects of induced lateral eye movements during aversive ideation. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry 2020; 68:101566. [PMID: 32179237 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbtep.2020.101566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2019] [Revised: 01/31/2020] [Accepted: 03/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) is a treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder. It uses a dual-task approach, in which patients recall an aversive memory while making lateral eye movements. Research has shown that this 'eye movements' intervention reduces subjective memory vividness and emotionality. This study examined whether it also reduces memory accuracy on a visual discrimination task. METHODS Participants (68 undergraduates) underwent an aversive conditioning phase, in which two pictures of male faces were followed by shock. Then they recalled one face with (experimental condition) and one without (control condition) making lateral eye movements. Finally, they completed a stimulus discrimination test with slightly different faces shortly after the intervention and one day later. RESULTS Results showed that the eye movements intervention led to increased false-positive rates one day later. LIMITATIONS Our intervention targeted newly formed memory rather than consolidated memory. CONCLUSIONS The results inform theory about EMDR's mechanisms of change and suggest that the treatment may have side effects regarding memory accuracy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arne Leer
- Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
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11
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Dashorst P, Huntjens RJC, Mooren TM, Kleber RJ, Zu Eulenburg C, de Jong PJ. Intrusions related to indirectly experienced events in clinical offspring of World War Two survivors. J Anxiety Disord 2020; 71:102209. [PMID: 32193000 DOI: 10.1016/j.janxdis.2020.102209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2019] [Revised: 01/23/2020] [Accepted: 03/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Negative events may not only linger on in the form of intrusive memories in the minds of those directly exposed but also in those who are only indirectly confronted with these events. The aim of the present study was to investigate if intrusions referring to indirectly experienced traumatic events do indeed occur, and to compare their frequency and characteristics to intrusions about directly experienced negative events. Participants (N = 98) were adult postwar offspring of World War Two survivors currently in treatment in one of two clinics specialized in the treatment of war victims. We examined the frequency and characteristics of intrusions about indirectly experienced (i.e., parent war-related) events and two types of directly (self-) experienced events: Self-experienced traumatic events and negative events related to participants' upbringing. Intrusions referring to indirectly experienced traumatic events did indeed occur. The frequency as well as other characteristics of these intrusions did not differ from those of both types of intrusions about directly experienced events. The similarities between intrusions related to different types of events emphasize the (re)constructive nature of memory. Our findings indicate that traumatic events not only affect those directly involved but may also continue to plague the next generation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Rafaele J C Huntjens
- Department of Clinical Psychology & Experimental Psychopathology, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Trudy M Mooren
- ARQ Centrum'45, Diemen/Oegstgeest, the Netherlands; Department of Clinical Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Rolf J Kleber
- ARQ Centrum'45, Diemen/Oegstgeest, the Netherlands; Department of Clinical Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Christine Zu Eulenburg
- Department for Epidemiology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Peter J de Jong
- Department of Clinical Psychology & Experimental Psychopathology, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
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