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Welch KD, Gardner DR, Lee ST, Stonecipher CA, Cook D. Comparison of the acute toxicity of zygacine versus zygadenine. Toxicon 2024; 248:108037. [PMID: 39038665 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2024.108037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2024] [Revised: 07/16/2024] [Accepted: 07/17/2024] [Indexed: 07/24/2024]
Abstract
Foothill death camas (Zigadenus paniculatus) is a common poisonous plant found throughout western North America. The toxic alkaloids in foothill death camas are zygadenine, esters of zygadenine, with zygacine, the 3-acetyl ester of zygadenine, often being the most abundant. Two additional esters of zygadenine that are found primarily in the floral parts of foothill death camas are 3-angeloylzygadenine and 3-veratroylzygadeine. Recent research has shown that very little zygacine is detected in the blood of animals dosed with zygacine. A recent investigation into the metabolism of zygacine demonstrated that zygacine is rapidly metabolized to zygadenine, demonstrating a clear first pass effect. The objective of this study was to determine if there is a difference in the acute toxicity of zygacine and zygadenine to mice and sheep. Additionally, two other esters of zygadenine, 3-angeloylzygadenine and 3-veratroylzygadenine, were evaluated for their acute toxicity in a mouse IV LD50 assay. All three esters of zygadenine tested were more toxic than zygadenine, with the following rank order of toxicity in the mouse IV LD50 assay: zygadenine-HCl (59.5 mg/kg) < zygacine-HCl (1.6 mg/kg) < angeloylzygadenine-HCl (1.0 mg/kg) < veratroylzygadenine-HCl (0.5 mg/kg). Similar to the results of the mouse experiments, zygacine-HCl was significantly more toxic than zygadenine-HCl in sheep dosed IV with pure compounds. Sheep dosed with 1.25 mg/kg zygacine-HCl showed severe clinical signs of poisoning. Whereas a dose of 12.5 mg/kg zygadenine-HCl was required to elicit a similar onset and severity of clinical signs. Overall, these data indicate that zygacine is more toxic than zygadenine when administered IV, when first pass metabolism is bypassed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin D Welch
- USDA-ARS Poisonous Plant Research Laboratory, 1150 East 1400 North, Logan, UT, 84341, USA.
| | - Dale R Gardner
- USDA-ARS Poisonous Plant Research Laboratory, 1150 East 1400 North, Logan, UT, 84341, USA
| | - Stephen T Lee
- USDA-ARS Poisonous Plant Research Laboratory, 1150 East 1400 North, Logan, UT, 84341, USA
| | - Clint A Stonecipher
- USDA-ARS Poisonous Plant Research Laboratory, 1150 East 1400 North, Logan, UT, 84341, USA
| | - Daniel Cook
- USDA-ARS Poisonous Plant Research Laboratory, 1150 East 1400 North, Logan, UT, 84341, USA
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Lee ST, Stonecipher CA, Green BT, Welch KD, Gardner DR, Cook D. Ruminant metabolism of zygacine, the major toxic alkaloid in foothill death camas (Zigadenuspaniculatus). Toxicon 2024; 240:107651. [PMID: 38364982 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2024.107651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2023] [Revised: 02/02/2024] [Accepted: 02/14/2024] [Indexed: 02/18/2024]
Abstract
Death Camas (Zigadenus spp.) are common poisonous plants distributed throughout North America. The toxic alkaloids in foothill death camas are zygadenine and a series of zygadenine esters, with zygacine, the 3-acetyl ester of zygadenine, being the most abundant. Both cattle and sheep can be poisoned by grazing death camas, however, sheep consume death camas more readily and are most often poisoned. We hypothesized that the presence of enzymes, including esterases present in the rumen, liver, and blood of livestock would metabolize zygacine. The objective of this study was to investigate the metabolism of zygacine in sheep and cattle using in-vitro and in-vivo systems. Results from experiments where zygacine was incubated in rumen culture, plasma, liver S9 fractions, and liver microsomes and from the analysis of rumen and sera from sheep and cattle dosed death camas plant material demonstrated that zygacine is metabolized to zygadenine in the rumen, liver and blood of sheep and cattle. The results from this study indicate that diagnosticians should analyze for zygadenine, and not zygacine, in the rumen and sera for the diagnosis of livestock suspected to have been poisoned by foothill death camas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen T Lee
- Poisonous Plant Research Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, 1150 E. 1400 N., Logan, UT, 84341, USA.
| | - Clinton A Stonecipher
- Poisonous Plant Research Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, 1150 E. 1400 N., Logan, UT, 84341, USA
| | - Benedict T Green
- Poisonous Plant Research Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, 1150 E. 1400 N., Logan, UT, 84341, USA
| | - Kevin D Welch
- Poisonous Plant Research Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, 1150 E. 1400 N., Logan, UT, 84341, USA
| | - Dale R Gardner
- Poisonous Plant Research Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, 1150 E. 1400 N., Logan, UT, 84341, USA
| | - Daniel Cook
- Poisonous Plant Research Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, 1150 E. 1400 N., Logan, UT, 84341, USA
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Luo SH, Hua J, Liu Y, Li SH. The Chemical Ecology of Plant Natural Products. PROGRESS IN THE CHEMISTRY OF ORGANIC NATURAL PRODUCTS 2024; 124:57-183. [PMID: 39101984 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-59567-7_2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/06/2024]
Abstract
Plants are excellent chemists with an impressive capability of biosynthesizing a large variety of natural products (also known as secondary or specialized metabolites) to resist various biotic and abiotic stresses. In this chapter, 989 plant natural products and their ecological functions in plant-herbivore, plant-microorganism, and plant-plant interactions are reviewed. These compounds include terpenoids, phenols, alkaloids, and other structural types. Terpenoids usually provide direct or indirect defense functions for plants, while phenolic compounds play important roles in regulating the interactions between plants and other organisms. Alkaloids are frequently toxic to herbivores and microorganisms, and can therefore also provide defense functions. The information presented should provide the basis for in-depth research of these plant natural products and their natural functions, and also for their further development and utilization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shi-Hong Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanhei Road 132, Panlong District, Kunming, 650201, Yunnan Province, P. R. China
| | - Juan Hua
- College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Shenyang Agricultural University, Dongling Road 120, Shenhe District, Shenyang, 110866, Liaoning Province, P. R. China
| | - Yan Liu
- Innovative Institute of Chinese Medicine and Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, LiuTai Avenue 1166, Wenjiang District, Chengdu, 611137, Sichuan Province, P. R. China.
| | - Sheng-Hong Li
- State Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanhei Road 132, Panlong District, Kunming, 650201, Yunnan Province, P. R. China.
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López-Rodríguez A, Hernández M, Carrillo-Galvez A, Becerra J, Hernández V. Phytotoxic activity of Ulex europaeus, an invasive plant on Chilean ecosystems: separation and identification of potential allelochemicals. Nat Prod Res 2023; 37:769-775. [PMID: 35617490 DOI: 10.1080/14786419.2022.2081851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Despite its worldwide relevance as an invasive plant, there are few studies on Ulex europaeus (gorse) and its allelopathic activity is almost unexplored. The allelochemical profile of gorse was analysed through methanolic extract of pods and roots, and its phytotoxic effects on Lactuca sativa germination. The methanolic extract of pods had no effect in germination, while extract of roots resulted in a U-shaped dose-response curve: reducing the germination at concentration 0.5 mg mL-1. GC-MS analysis detected compounds with proven antimicrobial and antioxidant activities in the pods and cytotoxic compounds in the roots, which could explain the bioassay results. The quinolizidine alkaloids (QAs) composition was evaluated to predict possible biological functions. It showed the presence of QAs in gorse that are absent in their native range, indicating broad defense strategies against bacteria, fungi, plants, and insects in the Chilean ecosystem. This could explain the superiority of gorse in the invaded areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ariadna López-Rodríguez
- Laboratorio de Química de Productos Naturales, Departamento de Botánica, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Oceanográficas, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
| | - Martha Hernández
- Centro de Biotecnología, Facultad de Ciencias Forestales, Universidad de Concepción, Chile
| | | | - José Becerra
- Laboratorio de Química de Productos Naturales, Departamento de Botánica, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Oceanográficas, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
| | - Víctor Hernández
- Laboratorio de Química de Productos Naturales, Departamento de Botánica, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Oceanográficas, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
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Stonecipher CA, Lee ST, Welch KD, Gardner DR, Cook D. Identification of two death camas chemotypes within a population and evaluation of toxicity. Toxicon 2022; 215:6-10. [PMID: 35660626 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2022.05.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2022] [Revised: 05/27/2022] [Accepted: 05/29/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Foothill death camas (Zigadenus paniculatus) is a native, cool-season, bulbous perennial forb found throughout the western U.S. The toxins in death camas are steroidal alkaloids. Zygacine is often the most abundant alkaloid in death camas and is believed to be the primary toxic component. A population of death camas with plants consisting of two different chemical profiles (chemotypes) growing within the same location were identified. The objective of this study was to determine the percentage of a death camas population represented by each of the different chemotypes and to determine if there was a difference in toxicity between the two chemotypes. One third of the population sampled consisted of chemotype 1, while two-thirds of the population consisted of chemotype 2. The zygacine concentration of chemotype 1 was three times higher than chemotype 2. Chemotype 2 contained higher concentrations of several other steroidal alkaloids than chemotype 1. We hypothesized that chemotype 1, which consisted of higher concentrations of zygacine, would be more toxic than chemotype 2. The acute toxicity of each chemotype was determined in mice and sheep. In the mouse LD50 study, the acute toxicity of the chemotype 1 alkaloids (2.3 mg/kg BW) was different than the chemotype 2 alkaloids (3.2 mg/kg BW). However, in the sheep study there were no differences in the adverse effects between chemotypes. Based upon the results of this study, caution should be taken when livestock are grazing death camas, as both chemotypes of death camas appear to pose a similar risk to grazing livestock.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clinton A Stonecipher
- Poisonous Plant Research Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, 1150 E. 1400 N., Logan, UT, 84341, USA.
| | - Stephen T Lee
- Poisonous Plant Research Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, 1150 E. 1400 N., Logan, UT, 84341, USA
| | - Kevin D Welch
- Poisonous Plant Research Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, 1150 E. 1400 N., Logan, UT, 84341, USA
| | - Dale R Gardner
- Poisonous Plant Research Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, 1150 E. 1400 N., Logan, UT, 84341, USA
| | - Daniel Cook
- Poisonous Plant Research Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, 1150 E. 1400 N., Logan, UT, 84341, USA
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