Overexpressed fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 in the invasive front of colorectal cancer: a potential therapeutic target in colorectal cancer

Targeting FGFR Pathways in Gastrointestinal Cancers: New Frontiers of Treatment

In carcinogenesis of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, the deregulation of fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR) signaling plays a critical role. The aberrant activity of this pathway is described in approximately 10% of gastric cancers and its frequency increases in intrahepatic cholangiocarcinomas (iCCAs), with an estimated frequency of 10-16%. Several selective FGFR inhibitors have been developed in the last few years with promising results. For example, targeting the FGFR pathway is now a fundamental part of clinical practice when treating iCCA and many clinical trials are ongoing to test the safety and efficacy of anti-FGFR agents in gastric, colon and pancreatic cancer, with variable results. However, the response rates of anti-FGFR drugs are modest and resistances emerge rapidly, limiting their efficacy and causing disease progression. In this review, we aim to explore the landscape of anti-FGFR inhibitors in relation to GI cancer, with particular focus on selective FGFR inhibitors and drug combinations that may lead to overcoming resistance mechanisms and drug-induced toxicities.

FGFR2 upregulates PAI-1 via JAK2/STAT3 signaling to induce M2 polarization of macrophages in colorectal cancer

Fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 (FGFR2) is frequently activated by overexpression or mutation, and an abnormal fibroblast growth factor (FGF)/FGFR signaling pathway is associated with the occurrence, development, and poor prognosis of colorectal cancer (CRC). Our preliminary analysis found that plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) expression may be related to FGF/FGFR signaling, however, their role in the tumor immune microenvironment remains unclear. In this study, we observed markedly higher PAI-1 expression in CRC patients with poor survival rates. PAI-1 is regulated by FGF/FGFR2 in colon cancer cells and is involved in M2 macrophage polarization. Mechanistically, inhibiting the JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway could cause PAI-1 downregulation. Furthermore, the activation of phosphorylated STAT3 upregulated PAI-1. In vivo, FGFR2 overexpression in tumor-bearing mouse models suggested that a PAI-1 inhibitor could rescue FGFR2/PAI-1 axis-induced M2 macrophage polarization, which leads to effective immune activity and tumor suppression. Moreover, the combination of a PAI-1 inhibitor and anti-PD-1 therapy exhibited superior antitumor activity in mice. These findings offer novel insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying tumor deterioration and provide potential therapeutic targets for CRC treatment.

miR-26a-5p and miR-125b-5p affect trophoblast genes and cell functions important during early pregnancy†

The most critical stage of pregnancy is embryo implantation, which relies on the synchronised developmental capacity of the embryo and uterine receptivity to implantation. In early pregnancy, conceptus and uterus release several factors enabling successful implantation and placentation. Molecules involved in embryo-maternal crosstalk include, but are not limited to, hormones, growth factors and cytokines. The discovery of microRNAs (miRNAs, small non-coding RNAs regulating gene expression) has revolutionized our understanding of many biological processes, including pregnancy. To date, numerous miRNAs have been detected in different species during pregnancy, both at the endometrial and embryonic sites. Thus, miRNAs are considered important regulators of early pregnancy events. Here, we report miR-26a-5p and miR-125b-5p effects on human and pig trophoblast cell function. Both miRNAs change the level of several genes and proteins important for proper embryo development. Moreover, miR-26a-5p stimulates porcine trophoblast proliferation and has a negative impact on its affinity to laminin. However, miR-125b-5p decreases porcine trophoblast cell migration. Our studies suggest that miR-26a-5p and miR-125b-5p can affect early pregnancy functions by regulating genes and processes important for proper conceptuses' development and progression through the implantation process.

Aspirin reduces the incidence of metastasis in a pre-clinical study of Braf mutant serrated colorectal neoplasia

BACKGROUND

Aspirin reduces the incidence of conventional adenomas driven by APC mutation and thus colorectal cancer. The effect of aspirin on the ~20% of colorectal cancers arising via BRAF mutation is yet to be established.

METHODS

Braf^V637E/+;Villin-Cre^ERT2/+ mice were allocated to a control (n = 86) or aspirin-supplemented (n = 83) diet. After 14 months the incidence of murine serrated lesions, carcinoma and distant metastases were measured by histological examination. RNA was extracted from carcinomas from each cohort and subjected to sequencing to identify differentially expressed genes and molecular pathways.

RESULTS

Aspirin did not reduce the incidence of murine serrated lesions or carcinoma when compared to control, however, did significantly reduce lesion size (P = 0.0042). Among the mice with carcinoma there was a significant reduction in the incidence of distant metastasis with aspirin treatment (RR 0.69, 95% CI 0.48-0.90, P = 0.0134). Key pathways underlying metastasis of carcinoma cells include NOTCH, FGFR and PI3K signalling, were significantly downregulated in carcinomas sampled from mice on an aspirin-supplemented diet.

CONCLUSIONS

Aspirin reduces the incidence of metastatic Braf mutant carcinoma, although this is not due to a reduction in primary disease. The reduction in metastasis could be attributed to a delay or prevention of molecular changes within the primary site driving metastatic growth.

GWAS Links New Variant in Long Non-Coding RNA LINC02006 with Colorectal Cancer Susceptibility

Simple Summary

Identifying risk factors for cancer development can allow for appropriate stratification and surveillance of individuals at risk, increasing their chances of benefiting from early disease detection; however, most of the genetic factors contributing to the risk of colorectal cancer (CRC) remain undetermined. Here, we adopted a new approach for selecting index polymorphism for further validation in combination with a genome-wide association study of pooled DNA samples for CRC susceptibility variants in the Polish population. This study, including 2013 patients and controls, uncovered five susceptibility loci not previously reported for CRC. Four of identified variants were located within genes likely involved in tumor invasiveness and metastasis, suggesting that they could be markers of poor prognosis in CRC patients. Our results provide evidence that conducting association studies on small but homogenous populations can help us discover new common risk variants specific to the studied population.

Abstract

Despite great efforts, most of the genetic factors contributing to the risk of colorectal cancer (CRC) remain undetermined. Including small but homogenous populations in genome-wide association studies (GWAS) can help us discover new common risk variants specific to the studied population. In this study, including 465 CRC patients and 1548 controls, a pooled DNA samples-based GWAS was conducted in search of genetic variants associated with CRC in a Polish population. Combined with a new method of selecting single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) for verification in individual DNA samples, this approach allowed the detection of five new susceptibility loci not previously reported for CRC. The discovered loci were found to explain 10% of the overall risk of developing CRC. The strongest association was observed for rs10935945 in long non-coding RNA LINC02006 (3q25.2). Three other SNPs were also located within genes (rs17575184 in NEGR1, rs11060839 in PIWIL1, rs12935896 in BCAS3), while one was intergenic (rs9927668 at 16p13.2). An expression quantitative trait locus (eQTL) bioinformatic analysis suggested that these polymorphisms may affect transcription factor binding sites. In conclusion, four of the identified variants were located within genes likely involved in tumor invasiveness and metastasis. Therefore, they could possibly be markers of poor prognosis in CRC patients.

Integration of transcriptomics and metabolomics reveals anlotinib-induced cytotoxicity in colon cancer cells

BACKGROUND

Mounting evidences suggested that anlotinib exhibits effective anti-tumor activity in various cancer types, such as lung cancer, glioblastoma and medullary thyroid cancer. However, its function in colon cancer remains to be further revealed.

METHODS

Colon cancer cells (HCT-116) were treated with or without anlotinib. Transcript and metabolite data were generated through RNA sequencing and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry, respectively. The integrated analysis transcriptomics and metabolomics was conducted using R programs and online tools, including ClusterProfiler R program, GSEA, Prognoscan and Cytoscape.

RESULTS

We found that differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were mainly involved in metabolic pathways and ribosome pathway. Structural maintenance of chromosome 3 (SMC3), Topoisomerase II alpha (TOP2A) and Glycogen phosphorylase B (PYGB) are the most significant DEGs which bring poor clinical prognosis in colon cancer. The analysis of metabolomics presented that most of the differentially accumulated metabolites (DAMs) were amino acids, such as L-glutamine, DL-serine and aspartic acid. The joint analysis of DEGs and DAMs showed that they were mainly involved in protein digestion and absorption, ABC transporters, central carbon metabolism, choline metabolism and Gap junction. Anlotinib affected protein synthesis and energy supporting of colon cancer cells by regulating amino acid metabolism.

CONCLUSIONS

Anlotinib has a significant effect on colon cancer in both transcriptome and metabolome. Our research will provide possible targets for colon cancer treatment using anlotinib.

First-in-Human Phase I Study of Aprutumab Ixadotin, a Fibroblast Growth Factor Receptor 2 Antibody-Drug Conjugate (BAY 1187982) in Patients with Advanced Cancer

Background

Fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR) 2 is overexpressed in several tumor types, including triple-negative breast cancer and gastric cancer, both of which have a high unmet medical need. Aprutumab ixadotin (BAY 1187982) is the first antibody–drug conjugate (ADC) to target FGFR2 and the first to use a novel auristatin-based payload.

Objective

This first-in-human trial was conducted to determine the safety, tolerability, and maximum tolerated dose (MTD) of aprutumab ixadotin in patients with advanced solid tumors from cancer indications known to be FGFR2-positive.

Patients and Methods

In this open-label, multicenter, phase I dose-escalation trial (NCT02368951), patients with advanced solid tumors received escalating doses of aprutumab ixadotin (starting at 0.1 mg/kg body weight), administered intravenously on day 1 of every 21-day cycle. Primary endpoints included safety, tolerability, and the MTD of aprutumab ixadotin; secondary endpoints were pharmacokinetic evaluation and tumor response to aprutumab ixadotin.

Results

Twenty patients received aprutumab ixadotin across five cohorts, at doses of 0.1–1.3 mg/kg. The most common grade ≥ 3 drug-related adverse events were anemia, aspartate aminotransferase increase, proteinuria, and thrombocytopenia. Dose-limiting toxicities were thrombocytopenia, proteinuria, and corneal epithelial microcysts, and were only seen in the two highest dosing cohorts. The MTD was determined to be 0.2 mg/kg due to lack of quantitative data following discontinuations at 0.4 and 0.8 mg/kg doses. One patient had stable disease; no responses were reported.

Conclusions

Aprutumab ixadotin was poorly tolerated, with an MTD found to be below the therapeutic threshold estimated preclinically; therefore, the trial was terminated early.

ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier

NCT02368951.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1007/s11523-019-00670-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Investigational fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 antagonists in early phase clinical trials to treat solid tumors

Introduction: Fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 (FGFR2) is a highly conserved transmembrane tyrosine kinase receptor. FGFR2 dysregulation occurs in numerous human solid tumors and overexpression is closely associated with tumor progression. FGFR2 has recently been reported as a therapeutic target for cancer. Several targeted therapies are being investigated to disrupt FGFR2 activity; these include multi-target tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs), pan-FGFR targeted TKIs and FGFR2 monoclonal antibodies. Areas: This review examines FGFR2 regulation and function in cancer and its potential as a target for cancer treatment. Expert opinion: Highly specific FGFR2 blockers have not yet been developed and moreover, resistance to FGFR2-targeted therapies is a challenge. More sophisticated patient selection strategies would help improve FGFR2-targeted therapies and combination therapy is considered the most promising approach for cancer patients with FGFR2 alterations.

Markers of Cancer Cell Invasion: Are They Good Enough?

Invasion, or directed migration of tumor cells into adjacent tissues, is one of the hallmarks of cancer and the first step towards metastasis. Penetrating to adjacent tissues, tumor cells form the so-called invasive front/edge. The cellular plasticity afforded by different kinds of phenotypic transitions (epithelial-mesenchymal, collective-amoeboid, mesenchymal-amoeboid, and vice versa) significantly contributes to the diversity of cancer cell invasion patterns and mechanisms. Nevertheless, despite the advances in the understanding of invasion, it is problematic to identify tumor cells with the motile phenotype in cancer tissue specimens due to the absence of reliable and acceptable molecular markers. In this review, we summarize the current information about molecules such as extracellular matrix components, factors of epithelial-mesenchymal transition, proteases, cell adhesion, and actin cytoskeleton proteins involved in cell migration and invasion that could be used as invasive markers and discuss their advantages and limitations. Based on the reviewed data, we conclude that future studies focused on the identification of specific invasive markers should use new models one of which may be the intratumor morphological heterogeneity in breast cancer reflecting different patterns of cancer cell invasion.

Fibroblast growth factor 7 signalling is disrupted in colorectal cancer and is a potential marker of field cancerisation

Background

Field cancerisation proposes that there are pre-malignant genetic mutations in the macroscopically normal mucosal tissue around colorectal cancer. This study aims to evaluate fibroblast growth factor 7 (FGF7) tissue expression in the mucosal field around colorectal cancer.

Methods

Gene and protein expression of FGF7, its receptor, FGFR2 and its downstream targets; FRS2α, Erk 1/2 and Akt was measured from mucosal samples in 34 control subjects and 17 cancer patients. Serial samples from tumour, adjacent to tumour and at the resection margin were utilised.

Results

FGF7 gene expression was significantly higher in tumour (2.3-fold), adjacent mucosa (3.2-fold) and resection margin (2.8-fold) of cancer patients compared with control subjects (P<0.01 respectively). However, FGFR2 was down regulated (3.5-fold) in the tumour tissue (P<0.001). Protein expression of FRS2α and Akt was significantly lower in tumour tissue compared with the resection margin in cancer patients (P<0.05 respectively). No differences in protein expression of Erk 1/2 were detected.

Conclusions

FGF7 was elevated in the mucosal field of cancer patients supporting its potential as a biomarker of field cancerisation. Changes in FRS2α, Akt and Erk 1/2 expression in the tumour tissue indicate that with malignant transformation, FGF7 loses its ability to regulate cellular differentiation.

FGFR2 Promotes Expression of PD-L1 in Colorectal Cancer via the JAK/STAT3 Signaling Pathway

Although multidisciplinary treatment is widely applied in colorectal cancer (CRC), the prognosis of patients with advanced CRC remains poor. Immunotherapy blocking of programmed cell death ligand 1 (PD-L1) is a promising approach. Binding of the transmembrane protein PD-L1 expressed by tumor cells or tumor microenvironment cells to its receptor programmed cell death 1 (PD-1) induces immunosuppressive signals and reduces the proliferation of T cells, which is an important mechanism of tumor immune escape and a key issue in immunotherapy. However, the regulation of PD-L1 expression is poorly understood in CRC. Fibroblast growth factor (FGF) receptor (FGFR) 2 causes the tyrosine kinase domains to initiate a cascade of intracellular signals by binding to FGFs and dimerization (pairing of receptors), which is involved in tumorigenesis and progression. In this study, we showed that PD-L1 and FGFR2 were frequently overexpressed in CRC, and FGFR2 expression was significantly associated with lymph node metastasis, clinical stage, and poor survival. In the current study, PD-L1 expression was positively correlated with FGFR2 expression in CRC. Tumor-derived-activated FGFR2 induced PD-L1 expression via the JAK/STAT3 signaling pathway in human CRC cells (SW480 and NCI-H716), which induced the apoptosis of Jurkat T cells. FGFR2 also promoted the expression of PD-L1 in a xenograft mouse model of CRC. The results of our study reveal a novel mechanism of PD-L1 expression in CRC, thus providing a theoretical basis for reversing the immune tolerance of FGFR2 overexpression in CRC.

Pathological and Prognostic Impacts of FGFR2 Overexpression in Gastric Cancer: A Meta-Analysis

Fibroblast growth factor receptor-2 (FGFR2) protein expression by immunohistochemistry has been reported in up to 60% of patients with gastric cancer (GC). However, the clicopathological impacts of high FGFR2 expression have not been consistent among studies. We conducted this meta-analysis to evaluate the pathological and prognostic significance of FGFR2 overexpression in patients with GC. A systematic search of the electronic databases including PubMed, PMC, EMBASE, and Google Scholar was performed. From ten studies, 4,294 patients were included in the pooled analyses of odds ratios (ORs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for pathological features and hazard ratios (HRs) with 95% CIs for overall survival according to the FGFR2 expression status. Compared with tumors showing low FGFR2 expression, GCs with FGFR2 overexpression revealed deeper depth of invasion (pT3-4) (OR = 2.63, 95% CI: 1.70-4.06, p < 0.0001), higher rate of lymph node metastasis (OR = 1.87, 95% CI: 1.31-2.67, p < 0.0001), and more advanced stage (III-IV) (OR = 1.78, 95% CI: 1.07-2.96, p = 0.03). In addition, patients with FGFR2-overexpressed GC showed significantly worse survival than those with FGFR2-low tumor (HR = 1.40, 95% CI: 1.25-1.58, p < 0.00001). In conclusion, this meta-analysis indicates that FGFR2 overexpression is associated with poor pathological features and prognosis in patients with GC.

Potential biomarkers for the early diagnosis of colorectal adenocarcinoma - transcriptomic analysis of four clinical stages

BACKGROUNDS

Colorectal cancer is the third most common cancer in economically developed countries. Molecular studies and, in particular, gene expression have contributed to advances in the diagnosis and treatment of many cancers. Genes can be molecular and therapeutic markers, but because of the large molecular diversity in colorectal cancer the knowledge is not yet fully established. Probably one of the most crucial processes during early cancer development is inflammation. The inflammatory response in the tumor is an important indicator of molecular etiology and later of cancer progression.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this work is to identify potential biomarkers for early stage of colorectal adenocarcinoma in patients' bowel tissues using transcriptomic analysis.

METHODS

Expression of the inflammatory response genes of colorectal cancer at all clinical stages (I-IV) and control of the bowel were evaluated by oligonucleotide microarrays.

RESULTS

Based on statistical analysis many differentially expressed genes were selected. LCK (LCK Proto-Oncogene, Src Family Tyrosine Kinase), GNLY (granulysin), SLC6A6 (Solute-Carrier Family 6 Member 6) and LAMP2 (Lysosomal Associated Membrane Protein 2) were specific for the early stage of the disease. These genes had the properties of the good biomarkers.

CONCLUSIONS

The expression of LCK, GNLY, SLC6A6 and LAMP2 genes could be valuable potential diagnostic biomarkers of the early stage of colorectal adenocarcinoma.

Prognostic role of fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 in human solid tumors: A systematic review and meta-analysis

In the past decades, the oncogenic role of fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 has been demonstrated in a number of cancer types. However, studies have reported contradictory findings concerning the correlation between fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 expression and prognosis in solid tumors. To address this discrepancy, we performed a meta-analysis with 18 published studies (2975 patients) retrieved from PubMed, EMBASE, and Web of science. Data were extracted and computed into odds ratios. The results showed that fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 overexpression was significantly associated with decreased 3-year overall survival (odds ratio = 1.93, 95% confidence interval: 1.30-2.85, p = 0.001) and 5-year overall survival (odds ratio = 1.62, 95% confidence interval: 1.07-2.44, p = 0.02) in patients with solid tumors. Subgroup analysis revealed that high fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 expression was also associated with poor prognosis of gastric cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma, and esophageal cancer, but not correlated with pancreatic cancer. In conclusion, fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 overexpression is correlated with decreased survival in most solid tumors, suggesting that the expression status of fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 is a valuable prognostic biomarker and a novel therapeutic target in human solid tumors.

Aberrant Splicing in Cancer: Mediators of Malignant Progression through an Imperfect Splice Program Shift

Although the efforts to understand the genetic basis of cancer allowed advances in diagnosis and therapy, little is known about other molecular bases. Splicing is a key event in gene expression, controlling the excision of introns decoded inside genes and being responsible for 80% of the proteome amplification through events of alternative splicing. Growing data from the last decade point to deregulation of splicing events as crucial in carcinogenesis and tumor progression. Several alterations in splicing events were observed in cancer, caused by either missexpression of or detrimental mutations in some splicing factors, and appear to be critical in carcinogenesis and key events during tumor progression. Notwithstanding, it is difficult to determine whether it is a cause or consequence of cancer and/or tumorigenesis. Most reviews focus on the generated isoforms of deregulated splicing pattern, while others mainly summarize deregulated splicing factors observed in cancer. In this review, events associated with carcinogenesis and tumor progression mainly, and epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, which is also implicated in alternative splicing regulation, will be progressively discussed in the light of a new perspective, suggesting that splicing deregulation mediates cell reprogramming in tumor progression by an imperfect shift of the splice program.

Targeted molecular profiling of rare genetic alterations in colorectal cancer using next-generation sequencing

Mutation frequencies of common genetic alterations in colorectal cancer have been in the spotlight for many years. This study highlights few rare somatic mutations, which possess the attributes of a potential CRC biomarker yet are often neglected. Next-generation sequencing was performed over 112 tumor samples to detect genetic alterations in 31 rare genes in colorectal cancer. Mutations were detected in 26/31 (83.9 %) uncommon genes, which together contributed toward 149 gene mutations in 67/112 (59.8 %) colorectal cancer patients. The most frequent mutations include KDR (19.6 %), PTEN (17 %), FBXW7 (10.7 %), SMAD4 (10.7 %), VHL (8 %), KIT (8 %), MET (7.1 %), ATM (6.3 %), CTNNB1 (4.5 %) and CDKN2A (4.5 %). RB1, ERBB4 and ERBB2 mutations were persistent in 3.6 % patients. GNAS, FGFR2 and FGFR3 mutations were persistent in 1.8 % patients. Ten genes (EGFR, NOTCH1, SMARCB1, ABL1, STK11, SMO, RET, GNAQ, CSF1R and FLT3) were found mutated in 0.9 % patients. Lastly, no mutations were observed in AKT, HRAS, MAP2K1, PDGFR and JAK2. Significant associations were observed between VHL with tumor site, ERBB4 and SMARCB1 with tumor invasion, CTNNB1 with lack of lymph node involvement and CTNNB1, FGFR2 and FGFR3 with TNM stage. Significantly coinciding mutation pairs include PTEN and SMAD4, PTEN and KDR, EGFR and RET, EGFR and RB1, FBXW7 and CTNNB1, KDR and FGFR2, FLT3 and CTNNB1, RET and RB1, ATM and SMAD4, ATM and CDKN2A, ERBB4 and SMARCB1. This study elucidates few potential colorectal cancer biomarkers, specifically KDR, PTEN, FBXW7 and SMAD4, which are found mutated in more than 10 % patients.

Expression of fibroblast growth factor receptor family members is associated with prognosis in early stage cervical cancer patients

Background

The oncogenic role of the fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR) has been recognized in a number of different cancer types. However, the prognostic significance of FGFRs has not been elucidated yet in cervical cancer. In the present study, we investigate the expression of FGFRs and their prognostic value in cervical cancer patients.

Methods

FGFR1, FGFR2, FGFR3, and FGFR4 expression was determined by immunohistochemistry in conjunction with quantitative digital image analysis of 336 formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded cervical cancer tissues and 61 normal cervical tissues, as well as NCI60 cell microarray. Subsequently, the association between clinicopathological characteristics and patient survival was assessed.

Results

FGFRs proteins were differentially expressed in the NCI60 cell line panel and showed considerable correlation between protein and mRNA expression. The expression of FGFR1, FGFR2, and FGFR4 were higher in cancer tissues than in normal tissues, whereas the expression of FGFR3 was higher in normal tissues. FGFR1 was highly expressed in adeno-/adenosquamous carcinoma (P = 0.020), while FGFR2, FGFR3, and FGFR4 expression were more prominent in squamous cell carcinoma (P < 0.001, P < 0.001, and P = 0.020, respectively). FGFR2 expression was significantly higher in small sized tumors (P = 0.020). Additionally, high FGFR2 and FGFR4 were correlated with negative lymph node metastasis (P = 0.048 and P = 0.040, respectively). FGFR1, FGFR2, and FGFR3 were highly expressed in tumors without parametrial involvement (P = 0.030, P = 0.005, and P = 0.010, respectively). In survival analysis, high expressions of FGFR2, FGFR3, and FGFR4 was associated with longer disease-free survival (P = 0.006, P = 0.035, P = 0.001, respectively) and overall survival (P = 0.003, P = 0.002, P = 0.003, respectively). Notably, the co-expression of all three FGFRs was significantly associated with favorable disease-free survival (P < 0.001) and overall survival (P < 0.001), compared to the negative expressions of the three FGFRs. The prognostic significance persisted in the cox regression analysis.

Conclusions

The frequent expression of members of the FGFR family in cervical cancer suggests they may have prognostic and therapeutic relevance.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12967-016-0874-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 is associated with poor overall survival in clear cell carcinoma of the ovary and may be a novel therapeutic approach

OBJECTIVE

We previously found that gene and protein expression of fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR) 2 were increased in ovarian clear cell carcinoma (CCC); here, we examined FGFR2 expression in CCC tumor tissues and its correlation with clinical parameters. We also analyzed the effect of an FGFR inhibitor on the growth of CCC cells to investigate whether FGFR2 could be a therapeutic target for this disease.

METHODS

We analyze the protein expression of FGFR2 by immunohistochemical staining in CCC from 112 patients and evaluated the association of these molecular parameters with clinical outcome. We treated the 11 CCC cell lines with an FGFR inhibitor, and then assessed cell viability, the expression of protein in FGFR2 signaling pathway, and cell cycle distribution.

RESULTS

The expressions of FGFR2 were found in 96% of CCC. The 5-year survival rate for patients with a moderate or strong expression of FGFR2 was significantly lower than that for those with an absent or poor expression of FGFR2 (54% vs 79%). Multivariable analysis revealed that FGFR2 expression and disease stage were independent prognostic factors. The FGFR inhibitor effectively suppressed the growth of CCC cells with induction of G1 cell cycle arrest and down-regulated the expression of phosphorylated Akt and phosphorylated ERK.

CONCLUSIONS

FGFR2 is an important biomarker predictive of patient outcome and is a potential target for CCC. Further study is warranted for FGFR inhibitor to treat CCC.

In vitro and in vivo evaluation of the radiosensitizing effect of a selective FGFR inhibitor (JNJ-42756493) for rectal cancer

Background

We examined the anti-tumor effect and radiosensitizing potential of a small molecule inhibitor of fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR) in colorectal cancer (CRC) in vitro and in vivo.

Methods

Effects of in vitro drug treatment on cell survival, proliferation, FGFR signaling, cell cycle distribution, apoptosis and radiosensitivity were assessed using various CRC cell lines with FGFR wild type (Caco2 and HCA7) and FGFR2 amplification (HCT116, NCI-H716). In vivo tumor responses to FGFR inhibition with and without radiation therapy were evaluated by growth delay assays in two colorectal xenograft mouse models (NMRI nu/nu mice injected with NCI-H716 or CaCo2 cells). Mechanistic studies were conducted using Western blot analysis, immunohistochemistry and qPCR.

Results

In the tested cell lines, the FGFR inhibitor (JNJ-42756493) was effective in vitro and in vivo in CRC tumors with highest expression of FGFR2 (NCI-H716). In vitro, cell proliferation in this line was decreased, associated with increased apoptotic death and decreased cell survival. In vivo, growth of NCI-H716 tumors was delayed by 5 days by drug treatment alone, although when drug delivery was stopped the relative tumor volume increased compared to control. The FGFR inhibitor did not radiosensitize NCI-H716 tumors either in vitro or in vivo.

Conclusions

Among tested CRC cell lines, the growth inhibitory activity of this FGFR inhibitor was evident in cell lines with high constitutive FGFR2 expression, suggesting that FGFR addiction may provide a window for therapeutic intervention, though caution is advised. Preclinical study with NCI-H716 and Caco2 tumor demonstrated that continued presence of drug could be essential for tumor growth control, especially in cells with aberrant FGFR expression. In the tested set-up, the inhibitor showed no radiosensitizing effect.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12885-015-2000-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Exploring Different Strategies for Efficient Delivery of Colorectal Cancer Therapy

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most common cancer and the fourth leading cause of cancer death in the world. Currently available chemotherapy of CRC usually delivers the drug to both normal as well as cancerous tissues, thus leading to numerous undesirable effects. Much emphasis is being laid on the development of effective drug delivery systems for achieving selective delivery of the active moiety at the anticipated site of action with minimized unwanted side effects. Researchers have employed various techniques (dependent on pH, time, pressure and/or bacteria) for targeting drugs directly to the colonic region. On the other hand, systemic drug delivery strategies to specific molecular targets (such as FGFR, EGFR, CD44, EpCAM, CA IX, PPARγ and COX-2) overexpressed by cancerous cells have also been shown to be effective. This review aims to put forth an overview of drug delivery technologies that have been, and may be developed, for the treatment of CRC.

FGFR2 regulates Mre11 expression and double-strand break repair via the MEK-ERK-POU1F1 pathway in breast tumorigenesis

The association between breast cancer risk and genetic variants of fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 (FGFR2) has been identified and repeatedly confirmed; however, the mechanism underlying FGFR2 in breast tumorigenesis remains obscure. Given that breast tumorigenesis is particularly related to DNA double-strand-break-repair (DSBR), we examined the hypothesis that FGFR2 is involved in DSBR. Our results show that expression of Mre11, a vital exonuclease in DSBR, is downregulated by FGFR2, which is further linked to decreased DSBR. Analysis of the Mre11 promoter revealed that POU1F1 mediates FGFR2-induced Mre11 downregulation. Furthermore, ERK, downstream of FGFR2, directly interacts with and phosphorylates POU1F1, increasing POU1F1 binding capacity to the Mre11 promoter and repressing Mre11 expression, which consequently affects DSBR and sensitizes breast cancer cells to chemotherapeutic treatments. The importance of the FGFR2-Mre11-DSBR link in cancer progression is suggested by the finding that genotypes of FGFR2 and Mre11 are associated with survival of breast cancer patients and that FGFR2 expression correlates with cancer prognosis specifically in patients receiving chemotherapy. This study yields important insight into the role of FGFR2 in breast tumorigenesis and may facilitate development of a useful therapeutic approach for breast cancer.

GLP-1R agonists promote normal and neoplastic intestinal growth through mechanisms requiring Fgf7

Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) secreted from enteroendocrine L cells promotes nutrient disposal via the incretin effect. However, the majority of L cells are localized to the distal gut, suggesting additional biological roles for GLP-1. Here, we demonstrate that GLP-1 receptor (GLP-1R) signaling controls mucosal expansion of the small bowel (SB) and colon. These actions did not require the epidermal growth factor (EGF) or intestinal epithelial insulin-like growth factor (IGF1) receptors but were absent in Glp1r(-/-) mice. Polyp number and size were increased in SB of exendin-4-treated Apc(Min/+) mice, whereas polyp number was reduced in SB and colon of Glp1r(-/-):Apc(Min/+) mice. Exendin-4 increased fibroblast growth factor 7 (Fgf7) expression in colonic polyps of Apc(Min/+) mice and failed to increase intestinal growth in mice lacking Fgf7. Exogenous exendin-4 and Fgf7 regulated an overlapping set of genes important for intestinal growth. Thus, gain and loss of GLP-1R signaling regulates gut growth and intestinal tumorigenesis.

C1GALT1 overexpression promotes the invasive behavior of colon cancer cells through modifying O-glycosylation of FGFR2

Core 1 β1,3-galactosyltransferase (C1GALT1) transfers galactose (Gal) to N-acetylgalactosamine (GalNAc) to form Galβ1,3GalNAc (T antigen). Aberrant O-glycans, such as T antigen, are commonly found in colorectal cancer. However, the role of C1GALT1 in colorectal cancer remains unclear. Here we showed that C1GALT1 was frequently overexpressed in colorectal tumors and is associated with poor survival. C1GALT1 overexpression promoted cell survival, migration, invasion, and sphere formation as well as tumor growth and metastasis of colon cancer cells. Conversely, knockdown of C1GALT1 with small interference (si) RNA was sufficient to suppress these malignant phenotypes in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, we are the first to show that fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR) 2 carried O-glycans in colon cancer cells. Mechanistic investigations showed that C1GALT1 modified the O-glycans on FGFR2 and enhanced bFGF-triggered activation of FGFR2 as well as increased bFGF-mediated malignant phenotypes. In addition, BGJ398, a selective inhibitor of FGFR, blocked the effects of C1GALT1. These findings suggest that C1GALT1 overexpression modifies O-glycans on FGFR2 and enhances its phosphorylation to promote the invasive behavior and cancer stem-like property in colon cancer cells, indicating a critical role of O-glycosylation in the pathogenesis of colorectal cancer.

Fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 overexpression is predictive of poor prognosis in rectal cancer patients receiving neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy

Aims

Neoadjuvant concurrent chemoradiotherapy (CCRT) followed by surgery is an increasingly used therapeutic strategy for advanced rectal cancer, but risk stratification and final outcomes remain suboptimal. Recently, the oncogenic role of the fibroblast growth factor/fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR) signalling pathway has been recognised; however, its clinical significance in rectal cancer has not been elucidated. In this study, we identify and validate targetable drivers associated with the FGFR signalling pathway in rectal cancer patients treated with CCRT.

Methods

Using a published transcriptome of rectal cancers, we found FGFR2 gene significantly predicted response to CCRT. The expression levels of FGFR2, using immunohistochemistry assays, were further evaluated in 172 rectal cancer specimens that had not received any treatment. Expression levels of FGFR2 were statistically correlated with major clinicopathological features and clinical survival in this valid cohort.

Results

High expression of FGFR2 was significantly related to advanced pretreatment tumour (p=0.022) and nodal status (p=0.026), post-treatment tumour (p<0.001) and nodal status (p=0.004), and inferior tumour regression grade (p<0.001). In survival analyses, high expression of FGFR2 was significantly associated with shorter local recurrence-free survival (p=0.0001), metastasis-free survival (MeFS; p=0.0003) and disease-specific survival (DSS; p<0.0001). Notably, high expression of FGFR2 was independently predictive of worse outcomes for MeFS (p=0.002, HR=5.387) and DSS (p=0.004, HR=4.997).

Conclusions

High expression of FGFR2 is correlated with advanced tumour stage, poor therapeutic response and worse survival in rectal cancer patients receiving neoadjuvant CCRT. These findings indicate that FGFR2 is a prognostic factor for treating rectal cancer.

Inhibition of fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 attenuates proliferation and invasion of pancreatic cancer

The alternative splicing of the extracellular domain of fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR)-2 generates the IIIb and IIIc isoforms. Expression of FGFR-2 IIIb correlates with vascular endothelial growth factor-A (VEGF-A) expression and venous invasion of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). By contrast, FGFR-2 IIIc expression correlates with faster development of liver metastasis after surgery, and increased proliferation rates and invasion of the cancer. In this study, we analyzed the expression and roles of total FGFR-2 (both isoforms) to determine the effectiveness of FGFR-2-targeting therapy for PDAC. Immunohistochemically, FGFR-2 was highly expressed in 25/48 (52.1%) PDAC cases, and correlated with advanced stage cancer. In FISH analysis, FGFR2 was amplified in 3/7 PDAC cell lines. We stably transfected an FGFR-2 shRNA targeting the IIIb and IIIc isoforms into FGFR2-amplified PDAC cells. The proliferation rates, migration, and invasion of FGFR-2-shRNA-transfected cells were lower than those of control cells in vitro. In response to FGF-2, FGFR-2-shRNA-transfected cells showed decreased phosphorylation of ERK compared with control cells. The FGFR-2-shRNA-transfected cells also expressed lower levels of vascular endothelial growth factor-A than control cells, and formed smaller s.c. tumors in nude mice. These findings suggest that FGFR-2 is a therapeutic target for inhibition in PDAC.

Functional roles of fibroblast growth factor receptors (FGFRs) signaling in human cancers

The fibroblast growth factor receptors (FGFRs) regulate important biological processes including cell proliferation and differentiation during development and tissue repair. Over the past decades, numerous pathological conditions and developmental syndromes have emerged as a consequence of deregulation in the FGFRs signaling network. This review aims to provide an overview of FGFR family, their complex signaling pathways in tumorigenesis, and the current development and application of therapeutics targeting the FGFRs signaling for treatment of refractory human cancers.

Downregulation of fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 and its isoforms correlates with a high proliferation rate and poor prognosis in high-grade glioma

Fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 (FGFR-2) contributes to the progression of numerous types of cancers; however, its role in glioma has yet to be determined. We investigated the expression of FGFR-2 and its predominant isoforms, FGFR-2 IIIb and FGFR-2 IIIc, in gliomas of all histological grades. Using immunohistochemistry, we demonstrated that FGFR-2, FGFR-2 IIIb and FGFR-2 IIIc were expressed in the astrocytes of normal human brains. The percentages of cells expressing FGFR-2, FGFR-2 IIIb and FGFR-2 IIIc and the intensities of their staining in glioblastomas (grade IV) were significantly reduced when compared to these parameters in the low-grade tumors (grade I, II and III; P<0.05). A high MIB-1 index, indicated by Ki-67 expression in >20% of the cells, was also associated with low expression of each FGFR-2 protein. Lower expression of FGFR-2 and FGFR-2 IIIc was correlated with a reduced survival rate (P=0.02 and 0.0253, respectively). Quantitative PCR analysis confirmed that the mRNA levels of FGFR-2 IIIb and FGFR-2 IIIc in a high-grade glioma-derived cell line (YKG-1) were lower than levels in a low-grade glioma-derived cell line (KG-1-C). These findings suggest that the decrease or loss of FGFR-2, FGFR-2 IIIb and FGFR-2 III in high-grade gliomas correlates with poor prognosis, which we attribute to the high proliferation rate of the tumor.

What could Nintedanib (BIBF 1120), a triple inhibitor of VEGFR, PDGFR, and FGFR, add to the current treatment options for patients with metastatic colorectal cancer?

Increasing knowledge of the pro-angiogenic processes involved in the progression of metastatic colorectal cancer (mCRC) has resulted in the clinical development of several anti-angiogenic agents, with bevacizumab currently being the only approved agent for mCRC. Nintedanib (BIBF 1120) has been shown to block the vascular endothelial growth factor receptor (VEGFR), the platelet-derived growth factor receptor (PDGFR), and the fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR). By targeting FGFR signaling, nintedanib may overcome resistance to previous anti-VEGF treatments, and may represent a better approach in patients with high basal levels of circulating FGFs. In this article, the angiogenic mechanisms implicated in mCRC are reviewed (focusing on the signaling pathways activated by VEGFR, PDGFR, and FGFR), along with the clinical data for nintedanib in the context of other anti-angiogenic tyrosine kinase inhibitors under clinical development for mCRC. Biomarkers that could predict response to nintedanib are also discussed.

Predictive and prognostic biomarkers with therapeutic targets in advanced colorectal cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most common human malignant diseases and the second leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. The treatment of advanced CRC has improved significantly in recent years. With the emergence of two targeted antibodies, cetuximab (Erbitux), an anti-epidermal growth factor receptor monoclonal antibody and bevacizumab (Avastin), a vascular endothelial growth factor monoclonal antibody, the treatment of metastatic CRC has entered the era of personalized therapy. Predictive and prognostic biomarkers have, and will continue to, facilitate the selection of suitable patients and the personalization of treatment for metastatic CRC (mCRC). In this review, we will focus primarily on the important progresses made in the personalized treatment of mCRC and discuss the potentially novel predictive and prognostic biomarkers for improved selection of patients for anti-cancer treatment in the future.

Nestin regulates proliferation, migration, invasion and stemness of lung adenocarcinoma

Lung cancer is the most common cancer and the most common cause of cancer-related death in the world. Nestin, a class VI intermediate filament, is known to be a cancer stem cell (CSC) marker as well as a neuroepithelial stem cell marker. High expression levels of nestin are reported in several types of cancers including lung, pancreatic and prostate cancers. Nestin is thought to regulate tumor cell proliferation, migration, invasion and CSC properties. Here, we confirmed nestin expression in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC): Immunohistochemical analysis in surgical specimens detected nestin protein expression in the cytoplasm of 20 of 48 adenocarcinoma (AD) cases (41.7%) and 25 of 47 squamous cell carcinoma cases (53.2%). Nestin immunoreactivity significantly correlated with not only tumor size and lymph node metastasis in NSCLC, but also poor survival in surgical patients with AD. High and moderate expression levels of nestin were confirmed in several lung AD cell lines including H1975 and PC-3. Nestin inhibition by shRNA decreased proliferation, migration, invasion and sphere formation in AD cells. Correspondingly, nestin upregulation by nestin gene transfection resulted in the opposite changes. Moreover, Akt inhibitor IV effectively decreased nestin expression via SRY-box containing protein 2 (Sox2) downregulation and overcame the enhanced sphere formation induced by nestin upregulation. Overall, our results show that nestin correlates with the aggressiveness and stemness of AD. Regulation of nestin via Akt/Sox2 is, thus, a promising candidate for novel therapeutic approaches to eradicate CSCs in lung AD.

FGF receptors: cancer biology and therapeutics

Fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) are involved in a variety of cellular processes, such as stemness, proliferation, anti-apoptosis, drug resistance, and angiogenesis. Here, FGF signaling network, cancer genetics/genomics of FGF receptors (FGFRs), and FGFR-targeted therapeutics will be reviewed. FGF signaling to RAS-MAPK branch and canonical WNT signaling cascade mutually regulate transcription programming. FGF signaling to PI3K-AKT branch and Hedgehog, Notch, TGFβ, and noncanonical WNT signaling cascades regulate epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and invasion. Gene amplification of FGFR1 occurs in lung cancer and estrogen receptor (ER)-positive breast cancer, and that of FGFR2 in diffuse-type gastric cancer and triple-negative breast cancer. Chromosomal translocation of FGFR1 occurs in the 8p11 myeloproliferative syndrome and alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma, as with FGFR3 in multiple myeloma and peripheral T-cell lymphoma. FGFR1 and FGFR3 genes are fused to neighboring TACC1 and TACC3 genes, respectively, due to interstitial deletions in glioblastoma multiforme. Missense mutations of FGFR2 are found in endometrial uterine cancer and melanoma, and similar FGFR3 mutations in invasive bladder tumors, and FGFR4 mutations in rhabdomyosarcoma. Dovitinib, Ki23057, ponatinib, and AZD4547 are orally bioavailable FGFR inhibitors, which have demonstrated striking effects in preclinical model experiments. Dovitinib, ponatinib, and AZD4547 are currently in clinical trial as anticancer drugs. Because there are multiple mechanisms of actions for FGFR inhibitors to overcome drug resistance, FGFR-targeted therapy is a promising strategy for the treatment of refractory cancer. Whole exome/transcriptome sequencing will be introduced to the clinical laboratory as the companion diagnostic platform facilitating patient selection for FGFR-targeted therapeutics in the era of personalized medicine.

Spatial morphological and molecular differences within solid tumors may contribute to the failure of vascular disruptive agent treatments

Background

Treatment of solid tumors with vascular disrupting agent OXi4503 results in over 90% tumor destruction. However, a thin rim of viable cells persists in the tumor periphery following treatment, contributing to subsequent recurrence. This study investigates inherent differences in the microenvironment of the tumor periphery that contribute to treatment resistance.

Methods

Using a murine colorectal liver metastases model, spatial morphological and molecular differences within the periphery and the center of the tumor that may account for differences in resistance to OXi4503 treatment were investigated. H&E staining and immunostaining were used to examine vessel maturity and stability, hypoxia and HIF1α levels, accumulation of immune cells, expression of proangiogenic factors/receptors (VEGF, TGF-β, b-FGF, and AT1R) and expression of EMT markers (ZEB1, vimentin, E-cadherin and β-catenin) in the periphery and center of established tumors. The effects of OXi4503 on tumor vessels and cell kinetics were also investigated.

Results

Significant differences were found between tumor periphery and central regions, including association of the periphery with mature vessels, higher accumulation of immune cells, increased growth factor expression, minimal levels of hypoxia and increased evidence of EMT. OXi4503 treatment resulted in collapse of vessels in the tumor center; however vasculature in the periphery remained patent. Similarly, tumor apoptosis and proliferation were differentially modulated between centre and periphery after treatment.

Conclusions

The molecular and morphological differences between tumor periphery and center may account for the observed differential resistance to OXi4503 treatment and could provide targets for drug development to totally eliminate metastases.

Fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 IIIc as a therapeutic target for colorectal cancer cells

A high percentage of colorectal carcinomas overexpress a lot of growth factors and their receptors, including fibroblast growth factor (FGF) and FGF receptor (FGFR). We previously reported that FGFR2 overexpression was associated with distant metastasis and that FGFR2 inhibition suppressed cell growth, migration, and invasion. The FGFR2 splicing isoform FGFR2IIIb is associated with well-differentiated histologic type, tumor angiogenesis, and adhesion to extracellular matrices. Another isoform, FGFR2IIIc, correlates with the aggressiveness of various types of cancer. In the present study, we examined the expression and roles of FGFR2IIIc in colorectal carcinoma to determine the effectiveness of FGFR2IIIc-targeting therapy. In normal colorectal tissues, FGFR2IIIc expression was weakly detected in superficial colorectal epithelial cells and was not detected in proliferative zone cells. FGFR2IIIc-positive cells were detected by immunohistochemistry in the following lesions, listed in the order of increasing percentage: hyperplastic polyps < low-grade adenomas < high-grade adenomas < carcinomas. FGFR2IIIc immunoreactivity was expressed in 27% of colorectal carcinoma cases, and this expression correlated with distant metastasis and poor prognosis. FGFR2IIIc-transfected colorectal carcinoma cells showed increased cell growth, soft agar colony formation, migration, and invasion, as well as decreased adhesion to extracellular matrices. Furthermore, FGFR2IIIc-transfected colorectal carcinoma cells formed larger tumors in subcutaneous tissues and the cecum of nude mice. Fully human anti-FGFR2IIIc monoclonal antibody inhibited the growth and migration of colorectal carcinoma cells through alterations in cell migration, cell death, and development-related genes. In conclusion, FGFR2IIIc plays an important role in colorectal carcinogenesis and tumor progression. Monoclonal antibody against FGFR2IIIc has promising potential in colorectal carcinoma therapy.

Fibroblast growth factor receptor 2: expression, roles, and potential as a novel molecular target for colorectal cancer

The fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR) family consists of four members, named FGFR1, 2, 3, and 4. All 4 FGFRs and their ligands, fibroblast growth factors (FGFs), are expressed in colorectal cancer (CRC). Recent studies have shown that FGFR2 plays important roles in cancer progression; therefore, it is of great interest as a novel target for cancers. Expression of FGFR2 regulates migration, invasion, and growth in CRC. Expression of the FGFR2 isoform FGFR2 IIIb was associated with well-differentiated histological types, and its specific ligand, FGF7, enhanced angiogenesis and adhesion to type-IV collagen via FGFR2 IIIb in CRC. FGFR2 IIIc is detected in CRC, but its roles have not been well elucidated. Interactions between FGFR2 IIIb and IIIc and FGFs may play important roles in CRC via autocrine and/or paracrine signaling. Several kinds of molecular-targeting agents against FGFR2 have been developed; however, it is not clear how a cancer treatment can most effectively inhibit FGFR2 IIIb or FGFR2 IIIc, or both isoforms. The aim of this paper is to summarize the roles of FGFR2 and its isoforms in CRC and clarify whether they are potent therapeutic targets for CRC.