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Nie J, Zhang Y, Ning L, Yan Z, Duan L, Xi H, Niu Q, Zhang Q. Phosphorylation of p53 by Cdk5 contributes to benzo[a]pyrene-induced neuronal apoptosis. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2022; 37:17-27. [PMID: 34529316 DOI: 10.1002/tox.23374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2021] [Revised: 08/18/2021] [Accepted: 09/06/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) is a ubiquitous carcinogenic pollutant in the environment, however, the potential neurotoxic effects of B[a]P has not been elucidated clearly. In the present study, we explored the potential involvement of p53 phosphorylation by Cdk5 in B[a]P-induced neuronal apoptosis at both in vitro and in vivo settings. For in vitro studies, primary cortical neurons isolated from the brains of Sprague Dawley (SD) rat pup were exposed to 0, 10, 20, and 40 μM of B[a]P for 12, 24, or 48 h. For in vivo studies, SD rats were injected intraperitoneally with 0, 1.0, 2.5, and 6.25 mg/kg of B[a]P every other day for 1, 2, or 3 months. Our results demonstrated that exposure to B[a]P caused a dose- and a time-dependent increase in neuronal apoptotic ratio in both in vitro and in vivo studies. There was also a dose- and a time-dependent upregulation of p35, p25, Cdk5, and phosphorylated p53 at Ser15 after B[a]P exposure. In order to explore whether B[a]P-induced increased neuronal apoptosis was through Cdk5/p53 pathway, roscovitine, a specific Cdk5 inhibitor, was applied to pretreat neurons prior to B[a]P exposure. The results showed that pretreatment of neurons with roscovitine partially rescued cells from B[a]P-induced apoptosis, and alleviated B[a]P-induced upregulation of phosphorylated p53 at Ser15. Our results suggest that Cdk5/p53 signaling pathway may be involved in B[a]P-induced neuronal apoptosis, which will provide information to further elucidate the molecular mechanisms of B[a]P-induced neurotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jisheng Nie
- Department of Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi, China
| | - Yu Zhang
- Department of Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi, China
| | - Lijun Ning
- Department of Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi, China
| | - Zhiwei Yan
- Department of Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi, China
| | - Lei Duan
- Department of Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi, China
| | - Huaxing Xi
- Department of Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi, China
| | - Qiao Niu
- Department of Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi, China
| | - Qunwei Zhang
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky, USA
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Liu Z, Dong L, Zheng Z, Liu S, Gong S, Meng L, Xin Y, Jiang X. Mechanism, Prevention, and Treatment of Radiation-Induced Salivary Gland Injury Related to Oxidative Stress. Antioxidants (Basel) 2021; 10:antiox10111666. [PMID: 34829539 PMCID: PMC8614677 DOI: 10.3390/antiox10111666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2021] [Revised: 10/14/2021] [Accepted: 10/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Radiation therapy is a common treatment for head and neck cancers. However, because of the presence of nerve structures (brain stem, spinal cord, and brachial plexus), salivary glands (SGs), mucous membranes, and swallowing muscles in the head and neck regions, radiotherapy inevitably causes damage to these normal tissues. Among them, SG injury is a serious adverse event, and its clinical manifestations include changes in taste, difficulty chewing and swallowing, oral infections, and dental caries. These clinical symptoms seriously reduce a patient’s quality of life. Therefore, it is important to clarify the mechanism of SG injury caused by radiotherapy. Although the mechanism of radiation-induced SG injury has not yet been determined, recent studies have shown that the mechanisms of calcium signaling, microvascular injury, cellular senescence, and apoptosis are closely related to oxidative stress. In this article, we review the mechanism by which radiotherapy causes oxidative stress and damages the SGs. In addition, we discuss effective methods to prevent and treat radiation-induced SG damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zijing Liu
- Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Radiation Oncology & Therapy, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China; (Z.L.); (L.D.); (Z.Z.); (S.L.); (S.G.)
- Department of Radiation Oncology, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China
- NHC Key Laboratory of Radiobiology, School of Public Health, Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China
| | - Lihua Dong
- Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Radiation Oncology & Therapy, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China; (Z.L.); (L.D.); (Z.Z.); (S.L.); (S.G.)
- Department of Radiation Oncology, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China
- NHC Key Laboratory of Radiobiology, School of Public Health, Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China
| | - Zhuangzhuang Zheng
- Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Radiation Oncology & Therapy, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China; (Z.L.); (L.D.); (Z.Z.); (S.L.); (S.G.)
- Department of Radiation Oncology, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China
- NHC Key Laboratory of Radiobiology, School of Public Health, Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China
| | - Shiyu Liu
- Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Radiation Oncology & Therapy, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China; (Z.L.); (L.D.); (Z.Z.); (S.L.); (S.G.)
- Department of Radiation Oncology, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China
- NHC Key Laboratory of Radiobiology, School of Public Health, Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China
| | - Shouliang Gong
- Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Radiation Oncology & Therapy, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China; (Z.L.); (L.D.); (Z.Z.); (S.L.); (S.G.)
- Department of Radiation Oncology, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China
- NHC Key Laboratory of Radiobiology, School of Public Health, Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China
| | - Lingbin Meng
- Department of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Moffitt Cancer Center, Tampa, FL 33612, USA;
| | - Ying Xin
- Key Laboratory of Pathobiology, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China;
| | - Xin Jiang
- Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Radiation Oncology & Therapy, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China; (Z.L.); (L.D.); (Z.Z.); (S.L.); (S.G.)
- Department of Radiation Oncology, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China
- NHC Key Laboratory of Radiobiology, School of Public Health, Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +86-158-0430-2750
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Jia C, Wang Q, Yao X, Yang J. The Role of DNA Damage Induced by Low/High Dose Ionizing Radiation in Cell Carcinogenesis. EXPLORATORY RESEARCH AND HYPOTHESIS IN MEDICINE 2021; 000:000-000. [DOI: 10.14218/erhm.2021.00020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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Pereira GLDC, Almeida TC, Seibert JB, Amparo TR, Soares RDDOA, Rodrigues IV, Bianco de Souza GH, Dos Santos ODH, da Silva GN. Antitumor effect of Cymbopogon densiflorus (Linneu) essential oil in bladder cancer cells. Nat Prod Res 2020; 35:5238-5242. [PMID: 32241181 DOI: 10.1080/14786419.2020.1747453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to analyse the antitumor effect of the Cymbopogon densiflorus essential oil in silico and in vitro on bladder cancer cells RT4 and T24, with different TP53 status. The oil was extracted by hydrodistillation and the gas chromatography coupled to the mass spectrometry was used for characterisation. In silico analysis was carried out by Pass online software. Cytotoxicity, cell proliferation, cell cycle progression, apoptosis and wound healing assays were performed. Five major compounds were identified. In silico analysis showed that major compounds present high potential for antitumor activities. The treatment with C. densiflorus essential oil reduced cell viability of bladder cancer cells. Only in wild-type cells, the increase of apoptosis rates and the decrease of cell migration were observed. In conclusion, the C. densiflorus essential oil presents antitumor effects on TP53 wild-type and mutated bladder cancer cells, however, the mechanism of action is TP53 status-dependent.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Tamires Cunha Almeida
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas (CIPHARMA), Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto, Ouro Preto, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Janaina Brandão Seibert
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Biotecnologia (BIOTEC), Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Tatiane Roquete Amparo
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas (CIPHARMA), Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto, Ouro Preto, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | | | | | - Gustavo Henrique Bianco de Souza
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas (CIPHARMA), Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto, Ouro Preto, Minas Gerais, Brazil.,Programa de Pós-graduação em Biotecnologia (BIOTEC), Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Orlando David Henrique Dos Santos
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas (CIPHARMA), Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto, Ouro Preto, Minas Gerais, Brazil.,Programa de Pós-graduação em Biotecnologia (BIOTEC), Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Glenda Nicioli da Silva
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas (CIPHARMA), Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto, Ouro Preto, Minas Gerais, Brazil
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Liebl MC, Hofmann TG. Cell Fate Regulation upon DNA Damage: p53 Serine 46 Kinases Pave the Cell Death Road. Bioessays 2019; 41:e1900127. [PMID: 31621101 DOI: 10.1002/bies.201900127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2019] [Revised: 09/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Mild and massive DNA damage are differentially integrated into the cellular signaling networks and, in consequence, provoke different cell fate decisions. After mild damage, the tumor suppressor p53 directs the cellular response to cell cycle arrest, DNA repair, and cell survival, whereas upon severe damage, p53 drives the cell death response. One posttranslational modification of p53, phosphorylation at Serine 46, selectively occurs after severe DNA damage and is envisioned as a marker of the cell death response. However, the molecular mechanism of action of the p53 Ser46 phospho-isomer, the molecular timing of this phosphorylation event, and its activating effects on apoptosis and ferroptosis still await exploration. In this essay, the current body of evidence on the molecular function of this deadly p53 mark, its evolutionary conservation, and the regulation of the key players of this response, the p53 Serine 46 kinases, are reviewed and dissected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena C Liebl
- Institute of Toxicology, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg, University Mainz, Obere Zahlbacher Str. 67, 55131, Mainz, Germany
| | - Thomas G Hofmann
- Institute of Toxicology, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg, University Mainz, Obere Zahlbacher Str. 67, 55131, Mainz, Germany
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Genetic depletion of p53 attenuates cocaine-induced hepatotoxicity in mice. Biochimie 2018; 158:53-61. [PMID: 30576773 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2018.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2018] [Accepted: 12/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Cocaine, an addictive drug, is known to induce hepatotoxicity via oxidative damage and proapoptosis. Since p53, a tumor suppressor gene, plays a major role in inducing oxidative stress and apoptosis, we examined the role of p53 inhibition against cocaine-induced hepatotoxicity. Cocaine treatment significantly increased oxidative parameters (i.e., reactive oxygen species, 4-hydroxylnonenal, and protein carbonyl) in the liver of wild type (WT) mice. We found that the pharmacological (i.e. pifithrin-α) and genetic (i.e. p53 knockout) inhibition of p53 significantly attenuates cocaine-induced hepatotoxicity. Cocaine treatment increased alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) levels in the serum of mice, signifying hepatic damage. Consistently, these increases were attenuated by inhibition of p53, implying protection against cocaine-induced hepatic damage. In addition, cocaine treatment significantly increased PKCδ, cleaved PKCδ and p53 levels in the liver of WT mice. These increases were followed by the interaction between p53 and PKCδ, and pro-apoptotic consequences (i.e., cytosolic release of cytochrome c, activation of caspase-3, increase in Bax level and decreases in Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL levels). These changes were attenuated by p53 depletion, reflecting that the critical role of PKCδ in p53-mediated apoptotic potentials. Combined, our results suggest that the inhibition of p53 is important for protection against oxidative burdens, pro-apoptotic events, and hepatic degeneration induced by cocaine.
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Yogosawa S, Yoshida K. Tumor suppressive role for kinases phosphorylating p53 in DNA damage-induced apoptosis. Cancer Sci 2018; 109:3376-3382. [PMID: 30191640 PMCID: PMC6215896 DOI: 10.1111/cas.13792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2018] [Revised: 07/23/2018] [Accepted: 09/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Tumor suppressor p53 plays an important role in cancer prevention. Under normal conditions, p53 is maintained at a low level. However, in response to various cellular stresses, p53 is stabilized and activated, which, in turn, initiates DNA repair, cell-cycle arrest, senescence and apoptosis. Post-translational modifications of p53 including phosphorylation, ubiquitination, and acetylation at multiple sites are important to regulate its activation and subsequent transcriptional gene expression. Particularly, phosphorylation of p53 plays a critical role in modulating its activation to induce apoptosis in cancer cells. In this context, previous studies show that several serine/threonine kinases regulate p53 phosphorylation and downstream gene expression. The molecular basis by which p53 and its kinases induce apoptosis for cancer prevention has been extensively studied. However, the relationship between p53 phosphorylation and its kinases and how the activity of kinases is controlled are still largely unclear; hence, they need to be investigated. In this review, we discuss various roles for p53 phosphorylation and its responsible kinases to induce apoptosis and a new therapeutic approach in a broad range of cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satomi Yogosawa
- Department of Biochemistry, Jikei University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kiyotsugu Yoshida
- Department of Biochemistry, Jikei University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
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Shin EJ, Hwang YG, Sharma N, Tran HQ, Dang DK, Jang CG, Jeong JH, Nah SY, Nabeshima T, Kim HC. Role of protein kinase Cδ in dopaminergic neurotoxic events. Food Chem Toxicol 2018; 121:254-261. [PMID: 30195712 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2018.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2018] [Revised: 08/31/2018] [Accepted: 09/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The pro-apoptotic role of Protein kinase Cδ (PKCδ), a member of the novel PKC subfamily, has been well-documented in various pathological conditions. In the central nervous system, the possible role of PKCδ has been studied, mainly in the condition of dopaminergic loss. It has been suggested that the phosphorylation of PKCδ at tyrosine 311 residue (Tyr311) by redox-sensitive Src family kinases (SFKs) is critical for the caspase-3-mediated proteolytic cleavage, which produces the constitutively active cleaved form of PKCδ. Mitochondrial translocation of cleaved PKCδ has been suggested to facilitate mitochondria-derived apoptosis and oxidative burdens. Moreover, it has been suggested that PKCδ contribute to neuroinflammation through the transformation of microglia into the pro-inflammatory M1 phenotype and the assembly of membrane NADPH oxidase in dopaminergic impairments. Interestingly, mitochondrial respiratory chain inhibitors or neuroinflammogens have shown to induce PKCδ activation in dopaminergic systems. Thus, PKCδ activation may be one of the pivotal causes of neuropathologic events, and could amplify these processes further in a positive feedback manner. Furthermore, PKCδ may play an intermediary role in connecting each neuropathologic event. This review affords insight into the role of PKCδ in various dopaminergic neurotoxic models, which could provide a potential target for mitigating dopaminergic neurotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eun-Joo Shin
- Neuropsychopharmacology and Toxicology Program, College of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chunchon, 24341, Republic of Korea
| | - Young Gwang Hwang
- Neuropsychopharmacology and Toxicology Program, College of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chunchon, 24341, Republic of Korea
| | - Naveen Sharma
- Neuropsychopharmacology and Toxicology Program, College of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chunchon, 24341, Republic of Korea
| | - Hai-Quyen Tran
- Neuropsychopharmacology and Toxicology Program, College of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chunchon, 24341, Republic of Korea
| | - Duy-Khanh Dang
- Neuropsychopharmacology and Toxicology Program, College of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chunchon, 24341, Republic of Korea
| | - Choon-Gon Jang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Ji Hoon Jeong
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, 06974, Republic of Korea
| | - Seung-Yeol Nah
- Ginsentology Research Laboratory and Department of Physiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Toshitaka Nabeshima
- Advanced Diagnostic System Research Laboratory, Fujita Health University Graduate School of Health Science, Toyoake, 470-1192, Japan
| | - Hyoung-Chun Kim
- Neuropsychopharmacology and Toxicology Program, College of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chunchon, 24341, Republic of Korea.
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Yang F, Zhao N, Wu N. TNFR2 promotes Adriamycin resistance in breast cancer cells by repairing DNA damage. Mol Med Rep 2017; 16:2962-2968. [DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2017.6898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2016] [Accepted: 04/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
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Cytotoxic and toxicogenomic effects of silibinin in bladder cancer cells with different TP53 status. J Biosci 2017; 42:91-101. [PMID: 28229968 DOI: 10.1007/s12038-016-9654-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Silibinin is a natural phenol found in the seeds of the milk thistle plant. Recent data have shown its effectiveness for preventing/treating bladder tumours. Therefore, in this study we investigated the cytotoxic and toxicogenetic activity of silibinin in bladder cancer cells with different TP53 statuses. Two bladder urothelial carcinoma cell lines were used: RT4 (wild-type TP53 gene) and T24 (mutated TP53 gene). Cell proliferation, clonogenic survival, apoptosis rates, genotoxicity and relative expression profile of FRAP/mTOR, FGFR3, AKT2 and DNMT1 genes and of miR100 and miR203 were evaluated. Silibinin promoted decreased proliferation and increased late apoptosis in TP53 mutated cells. Increased early apoptosis rates, primary DNA damage, and decrease of cell colonies in the clonogenic survival assay were detected in both RT4 and T24 cell lines. Down-regulation of FRAP/mTOR, AKT2, FGFR3, DNMT1 and miR100 expression occurred in RT4 cells. Modulation of miR203 was observed in both cell lines. In conclusion, despite the reduction of clone formation in both cell lines, the toxicogenomic effect of silibinin on FRAP/mTOR, AKT2, FGFR3, DNMT1 and miR100 was dependent on the TP53 status. Taken together, the data confirmed the role of silibinin as an antiproliferative compound, whose mechanism of action was related to the TP53 status.
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Dashzeveg N, Yoshida K. Crosstalk between tumor suppressors p53 and PKCδ: Execution of the intrinsic apoptotic pathways. Cancer Lett 2016; 377:158-63. [PMID: 27130668 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2016.04.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2016] [Revised: 04/21/2016] [Accepted: 04/21/2016] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
p53 and PKCδ are tumor suppressors that execute apoptotic mechanisms in response to various cellular stresses. p53 is a transcription factor that is frequently mutated in human cancers; it regulates apoptosis in transcription-dependent and -independent ways in response to genotoxic stresses. PKCδ is a serine/threonine protein kinase and mutated in human cancers. Available evidence shows that PKCδ activates p53 by direct and/or indirect mechanisms. Moreover, PKCδ is also implicated in the transcriptional regulation of p53 in response to DNA damage. Recent findings demonstrated that p53, in turn, binds onto the PKCδ promoter and induces its expression upon DNA damage to facilitate apoptosis. Both p53 and PKCδ are associated with the apoptotic mechanisms in the mitochondria by regulating Bcl-2 family proteins to provide mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization. This review discusses the crosstalk between p53 and PKCδ in the context of apoptotic cell death and cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nurmaa Dashzeveg
- Department of Biochemistry, Jikei University School of Medicine, 3-25-8 Nishi-shinbashi, Minato-ku, Tokyo 105-8461, Japan
| | - Kiyotsugu Yoshida
- Department of Biochemistry, Jikei University School of Medicine, 3-25-8 Nishi-shinbashi, Minato-ku, Tokyo 105-8461, Japan.
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