RETRACTED: HIF-1α mediates tumor-nerve interactions through the up-regulation of GM-CSF in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma

Tumour-associated macrophages and Schwann cells promote perineural invasion via paracrine loop in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma

BACKGROUND

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is frequently accompanied by perineural invasion (PNI), which is associated with excruciating neuropathic pain and malignant progression. However, the relationship between PNI and tumour stromal cells has not been clarified.

METHODS

The dorsal root ganglia or sciatic nerves nerve model was used to observe the paracrine interaction and the activation effect among Schwann cells, tumour-associated macrophages (TAMs), and pancreatic cancer cells in vitro. Next generation sequencing, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and chromatin immunoprecipitation were used to explore the specific paracrine signalling between TAMs and Schwann cells.

RESULTS

We demonstrated that more macrophages were expressed around nerves that have been infiltrated by pancreatic cancer cells compared with normal nerves in murine and human PNI specimens. In addition, high expression of CD68 or GFAP is associated with an increased incidence of PNI and indicates a poor 5-year survival rate in patients with PDAC. Mechanistically, tumour-associated macrophages (TAMs) activate Schwann cells via the bFGF/PI3K/Akt/c-myc/GFAP pathway. Schwann cells secrete IL-33 to recruit macrophages into the perineural milieu and facilitate the M2 pro-tumourigenic polarisation of macrophages.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study demonstrates that the bFGF/IL-33 positive feedback loop between Schwann cells and TAMs is essential in the process of PNI of PDAC. The bFGF/PI3K/Akt/c-myc/GFAP pathway would open potential avenues for targeted therapy of PDAC.

Tumor microenvironment crosstalk between tumors and the nervous system in pancreatic cancer: Molecular mechanisms and clinical perspectives

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) exhibits the highest incidence of perineural invasion among all solid tumors. The intricate interplay between tumors and the nervous system plays an important role in PDAC tumorigenesis, progression, recurrence, and metastasis. Various clinical symptoms of PDAC, including anorexia and cancer pain, have been linked to aberrant neural activity, while the presence of perineural invasion is a significant prognostic indicator. The use of conventional neuroactive drugs and neurosurgical interventions for PDAC patients is on the rise. An in-depth exploration of tumor-nervous system crosstalk has revealed novel therapeutic strategies for mitigating PDAC progression and effectively relieving symptoms. In this comprehensive review, we elucidate the regulatory functions of tumor-nervous system crosstalk, provide a succinct overview of the relationship between tumor-nervous system dialogue and clinical symptomatology, and deliberate the current research progress and forthcoming avenues of neural therapy for PDAC.

Butein, a potential drug for the treatment of bone cancer pain through bioinformatic and network pharmacology

Bone cancer pain is a difficult-to-treat pathologic condition that impairs the patient's quality of life. The effective therapy options for BCP are restricted due to the unknown pathophysiology. Transcriptome data were obtained from the Gene Expression Omnibus database and differentially expressed gene extraction was performed. DEGs integrated with pathological targets found 68 genes in the study. Butein was discovered as a possible medication for BCP after the 68 genes were submitted to the Connectivity Map 2.0 database for drug prediction. Moreover, butein has good drug-likeness properties. To collect the butein targets, we used the CTD, SEA, TargetNet, and Super-PRED databases. Furthermore, Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway enrichment analyses revealed butein's pharmacological effects, indicating that butein may aid in treating BCP by altering the hypoxia-inducible factor, NF-kappa B, angiogenesis, and sphingolipid signaling pathways. Moreover, the pathological targets integrated with drug targets were obtained as the shared gene set A, which was analyzed by ClueGO and MCODE. Biological process analysis and MCODE algorithm further analyzed that BCP related targets were mainly involved in signal transduction process and ion channel-related pathways. Next, we integrated targets related to network topology parameters and targets of core pathways, identified PTGS2, EGFR, JUN, ESR1, TRPV1, AKT1 and VEGFA as butein regulated hub genes by molecular docking, which play a critical role in its analgesic effect. This study lays the scientific groundwork for elucidating the mechanism underlying butein's success in the treatment of BCP.

Hypoxia-Inducible Factor-1: A Novel Therapeutic Target for the Management of Cancer, Drug Resistance, and Cancer-Related Pain

Hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1) is a key transcription factor that regulates the transcription of many genes that are responsible for the adaptation and survival of tumor cells in hypoxic environments. Over the past few decades, tremendous efforts have been made to comprehensively understand the role of HIF-1 in tumor progression. Based on the pivotal roles of HIF-1 in tumor biology, many HIF-1 inhibitors interrupting expression, stabilization, DNA binding properties, or transcriptional activity have been identified as potential therapeutic agents for various cancers, yet none of these inhibitors have yet been successfully translated into clinically available cancer treatments. In this review, we briefly introduce the regulation of the HIF-1 pathway and summarize its roles in tumor cell proliferation, angiogenesis, and metastasis. In addition, we explore the implications of HIF-1 in the development of drug resistance and cancer-related pain: the most commonly encountered obstacles during conventional anticancer therapies. Finally, the current status of HIF-1 inhibitors in clinical trials and their perspectives are highlighted, along with their modes of action. This review provides new insights into novel anticancer drug development targeting HIF-1. HIF-1 inhibitors may be promising combinational therapeutic interventions to improve the efficacy of current cancer treatments and reduce drug resistance and cancer-related pain.

YAP1-TEAD1 mediates the perineural invasion of prostate cancer cells induced by cancer-associated fibroblasts

Perineural invasion (PNI) driven by the tumor microenvironment (TME) has emerged as a key pattern of metastasis of prostate cancer (PCa), while its underlying mechanism is still elusive. Here, we identified increased CAFs and YAP1 expression levels in patients with metastatic PCa. In the cultured PCa cell line LNCaP, co-culture with cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) could upregulate YAP1 protein expression. Either ectopic overexpression of YAP1 or co-culture with CAFs could promote the infiltration of LNCaPs towards dorsal root ganglia (DRG). This effect could be blocked using an YAP1 inhibitor. In vivo, overexpression of YAP1 could increase PNI in a mouse model of sciatic nerve tumor invasion. Mechanistically, TEAD1 binds to the NGF promotor and YAP1/TEAD1 activates its transcription and consequently increases NGF secretion. In turn, PCa cells treated with CM from CAFs or stable YAP1 overexpression can stimulate DRG to secrete CCL2. The epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) of PCa cells is thus activated via CCL2/CCR2. Overall, our data demonstrate that CAFs can activate YAP1/TEAD1 signaling and increase the secretion of NGF, therefore promoting PCa PNI. In addition, EMT induced by PNI suggests a feedback loop is present between neurons and PCa cells.

The hypoxia-driven crosstalk between tumor and tumor-associated macrophages: mechanisms and clinical treatment strategies

Given that hypoxia is a persistent physiological feature of many different solid tumors and a key driver for cancer malignancy, it is thought to be a major target in cancer treatment recently. Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are the most abundant immune cells in the tumor microenvironment (TME), which have a large impact on tumor development and immunotherapy. TAMs massively accumulate within hypoxic tumor regions. TAMs and hypoxia represent a deadly combination because hypoxia has been suggested to induce a pro-tumorigenic macrophage phenotype. Hypoxia not only directly affects macrophage polarization, but it also has an indirect effect by altering the communication between tumor cells and macrophages. For example, hypoxia can influence the expression of chemokines and exosomes, both of which have profound impacts on the recipient cells. Recently, it has been demonstrated that the intricate interaction between cancer cells and TAMs in the hypoxic TME is relevant to poor prognosis and increased tumor malignancy. However, there are no comprehensive literature reviews on the molecular mechanisms underlying the hypoxia-mediated communication between tumor cells and TAMs. Therefore, this review has the aim to collect all recently available data on this topic and provide insights for developing novel therapeutic strategies for reducing the effects of hypoxia.

GM-CSF: A Double-Edged Sword in Cancer Immunotherapy

Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) is a cytokine that drives the generation of myeloid cell subsets including neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells in response to stress, infections, and cancers. By modulating the functions of innate immune cells that serve as a bridge to activate adaptive immune responses, GM-CSF globally impacts host immune surveillance under pathologic conditions. As with other soluble mediators of immunity, too much or too little GM-CSF has been found to promote cancer aggressiveness. While too little GM-CSF prevents the appropriate production of innate immune cells and subsequent activation of adaptive anti-cancer immune responses, too much of GM-CSF can exhaust immune cells and promote cancer growth. The consequences of GM-CSF signaling in cancer progression are a function of the levels of GM-CSF, the cancer type, and the tumor microenvironment. In this review, we first discuss the secretion of GM-CSF, signaling downstream of the GM-CSF receptor, and GM-CSF’s role in modulating myeloid cell homeostasis. We then outline GM-CSF’s anti-tumorigenic and pro-tumorigenic effects both on the malignant cells and on the non-malignant immune and other cells in the tumor microenvironment. We provide examples of current clinical and preclinical strategies that harness GM-CSF’s anti-cancer potential while minimizing its deleterious effects. We describe the challenges in achieving the Goldilocks effect during administration of GM-CSF-based therapies to patients with cancer. Finally, we provide insights into how technologies that map the immune microenvironment spatially and temporally may be leveraged to intelligently harness GM-CSF for treatment of malignancies.

Schwann Cells in Digestive System Disorders

Proper functioning of the digestive system is ensured by coordinated action of the central and peripheral nervous systems (PNS). Peripheral innervation of the digestive system can be viewed as intrinsic and extrinsic. The intrinsic portion is mainly composed of the neurons and glia of the enteric nervous system (ENS), while the extrinsic part is formed by sympathetic, parasympathetic, and sensory branches of the PNS. Glial cells are a crucial component of digestive tract innervation, and a great deal of research evidence highlights the important status of ENS glia in health and disease. In this review, we shift the focus a bit and discuss the functions of Schwann cells (SCs), the glial cells of the extrinsic innervation of the digestive system. For more context, we also provide information on the basic findings regarding the function of innervation in disorders of the digestive organs. We find diverse SC roles described particularly in the mouth, the pancreas, and the intestine. We note that most of the scientific evidence concerns the involvement of SCs in cancer progression and pain, but some research identifies stem cell functions and potential for regenerative medicine.

Schwann Cells in the Tumor Microenvironment: Need More Attention

The tumor microenvironment (TME), which is composed of various cell components and signaling molecules, plays an important role in the occurrence and progression of tumors and has become the central issue of current cancer research. In recent years, as a part of the TME, the peripheral nervous system (PNS) has attracted increasing attention. Moreover, emerging evidence shows that Schwann cells (SCs), which are the most important glial cells in the PNS, are not simply spectators in the TME. In this review article, we focused on the up-to-date research progress on SCs in the TME and introduced our point of view. In detail, we described that under two main tumor-nerve interaction patterns, perineural invasion (PNI) and tumor innervation, SCs were reprogrammed and acted as important participants. We also investigated the newest mechanisms between the interactions of SCs and tumor cells. In addition, SCs can have profound impacts on other cellular components in the TME, such as immune cells and cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), involving immune regulation, tumor-related pain, and nerve remodeling. Overall, these innovative statements can expand the scope of the TME, help fully understand the significant role of SCs in the tumor-nerve-immune axis, and propose enlightenments to innovate antitumor therapeutic methods and future research.

Multifarious Targets and Recent Developments in the Therapeutics for the Management of Bone Cancer Pain

Bone cancer pain (BCP) is a distinct pain state showing characteristics of both neuropathic and inflammatory pain. On average, almost 46% of cancer patients exhibit BCP with numbers flaring up to as high as 76% for terminally ill patients. Patients suffering from BCP experience a compromised quality of life, and the unavailability of effective therapeutics makes this a more devastating condition. In every individual cancer patient, the pain is driven by different mechanisms at different sites. The mechanisms behind the manifestation of BCP are very complex and poorly understood, which creates a substantial barrier to drug development. Nevertheless, some of the key mechanisms involved have been identified and are being explored further to develop targeted molecules. Developing a multitarget approach might be beneficial in this case as the underlying mechanism is not fixed and usually a number of these pathways are simultaneously dysregulated. In this review, we have discussed the role of recently identified novel modulators and mechanisms involved in the development of BCP. They include ion channels and receptors involved in sensing alteration of temperature and acidic microenvironment, immune system activation, sodium channels, endothelins, protease-activated receptors, neurotrophins, motor proteins mediated trafficking of glutamate receptor, and some bone-specific mechanisms. Apart from this, we have also discussed some of the novel approaches under preclinical and clinical development for the treatment of bone cancer pain.

Perineural Invasion and Associated Pain Transmission in Pancreatic Cancer

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is one of the cancers with the highest incidence of perineural invasion (PNI), which often indicates a poor prognosis. Aggressive tumor cells invade nerves, causing neurogenic inflammation; the tumor microenvironment also induces nerves to undergo a series of structural and functional reprogramming. In turn, neurons and the surrounding glial cells promote the development of pancreatic cancer through autocrine and/or paracrine signaling. In addition, hyperalgesia in PDAC patients implies alterations of pain transmission in the peripheral and central nervous systems. Currently, the studies on this topic are relatively limited. This review will elaborate on the mechanisms of tumor-neural interactions and its possible relationship with pain from several aspects that have been focused on in recent years.

Cellular and molecular mechanisms of perineural invasion of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is an aggressive malignant disease with a unique tumor microenvironment surrounded by an interlaced network of cancer and noncancerous cells. Recent works have revealed that the dynamic interaction between cancer cells and neuronal cells leads to perineural invasion (PNI), a clinical pathological feature of PDAC. The formation and function of PNI are dually regulated by molecular (e.g., involving neurotrophins, cytokines, chemokines, and neurotransmitters), metabolic (e.g., serine metabolism), and cellular mechanisms (e.g., involving Schwann cells, stromal cells, T cells, and macrophages). Such integrated mechanisms of PNI not only support tumor development, growth, invasion, and metastasis but also mediate the formation of pain, all of which are closely related to poor disease prognosis in PDAC. This review details the modulation, signaling pathways, detection, and clinical relevance of PNI and highlights the opportunities for further exploration that may benefit PDAC patients.

Long non‑coding RNA PCED1B‑AS1 promotes pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma progression by regulating the miR‑411‑3p/HIF‑1α axis

An increasing number of studies have shown that long non‑coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are crucially involved in tumorigenesis. However, the biological functions, underlying mechanisms and clinical value of lncRNA PC‑esterase domain containing 1B‑antisense RNA 1 (PCED1B‑AS1) in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) have not been determined, to the best of our knowledge. In the present study, the expression of PCED1B‑AS1, microRNA (miR)‑411‑3p and hypoxia inducible factor (HIF)‑1α mRNA in 47 cases of PDAC tissues were detected using reverse transcription‑quantitative (RT‑q)PCR. Moreover, the effects of PCED1B‑AS1 on the biological behaviors of PDAC cells were assessed using Cell Counting Kit‑8, EdU staining and Transwell assays. Bioinformatics analysis, RT‑qPCR, western blotting, dual luciferase reporter gene and RNA immunoprecipitation assays were performed to determine the regulatory relationships between PCED1B‑AS1, miR‑411‑3p and HIF‑1α. We demonstrated that PCED1B‑AS1 was significantly upregulated in PDAC tumor tissues, and its expression was associated with advanced Tumor‑Node‑Metastasis stage and lymph node metastasis. PCED1B‑AS1 knockdown inhibited PDAC cell proliferation, invasion as well as epithelial‑mesenchymal transition (EMT) in vitro. Mechanistically, PCED1B‑AS1 was shown to target miR‑411‑3p, resulting in the upregulation of HIF‑1α. In conclusion, PCED1B‑AS1 expression was upregulated in PDAC tissues and cells, and it participated in promoting the proliferation, invasion and EMT of cancer cells by modulating the miR‑411‑3p/HIF‑1α axis.

The Anti-Tumor Activity of Afatinib in Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma Cells

BACKGROUND

Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is the most common form of pancreatic cancer and leading causes of pancreatic cancer death because of most PDAC patients with advanced unresectable disease at that time, which is remarkably resistant to all forms of chemotherapy and radiotherapy.

OBJECTIVE

PDAC increases the social and patient's family burden. However, the PDAC pathogenesis is not identified. We are trying to uncover the underlying mechanism in the future.

METHODS

In our research, the drug-resistant cell line was successfully induced in the vitro by progressive concentrations of Afatinib, which we named it as BxPC3-AR.

RESULTS

It has been observed that the effect of autophagy was on the resistance of BxPC3-AR to Afatinib.

CONCLUSION

It has been confirmed that autophagy plays a certain role in BxPC3-AR resistance to Afatinib. Our findings provide a new perspective on the role of autophagy in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma.

Mutant KRAS triggers functional reprogramming of tumor-associated macrophages in colorectal cancer

Oncogenic KRAS has been previously identified to act in a cell-intrinsic manner to modulate multiple biological functions of colorectal cancer (CRC). Here, we demonstrate a cell-extrinsic role of KRAS, where KRAS engages with the tumor microenvironment by functional reprogramming of tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs). In human CRC specimens, mutant KRAS positively correlates with the presence of TAMs. Mutationally activated KRAS in tumor cells reprograms macrophages to a TAM-like phenotype via a combination effect of tumor-derived CSF2 and lactate. In turn, KRAS-reprogrammed macrophages were shown to not only promote tumor progression but also induce the resistance of tumor cells to cetuximab therapy. Mechanistically, KRAS drives the production of CSF2 and lactate in tumor cells by stabilizing hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α), a transcription factor that controls the expression of CSF2 and glycolytic genes. Mutant KRAS increased the production of reactive oxygen species, an inhibitor of prolyl hydroxylase activity which decreases HIF-1α hydroxylation, leading to enhanced HIF-1α stabilization. This cell-extrinsic mechanism awards KRAS a critical role in engineering a permissive microenvironment to promote tumor malignancy, and may present new insights on potential therapeutic defense strategies against mutant KRAS tumors.

VHH212 nanobody targeting the hypoxia-inducible factor 1α suppresses angiogenesis and potentiates gemcitabine therapy in pancreatic cancer in vivo

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to develop a novel anti-HIF-1α intrabody to decrease gemcitabine resistance in pancreatic cancer patients.

METHODS

Surface plasmon resonance and glutathione S-transferase pull-down assays were conducted to identify the binding affinity and specificity of anti-HIF-1α VHH212 [a single-domain antibody (nanobody)]. Molecular dynamics simulation was used to determine the protein-protein interactions between hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) and VHH212. The real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and Western blot analyses were performed to identify the expressions of HIF-1α and VEGF-A in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma cell lines. The efficiency of the VHH212 nanobody in inhibiting the HIF-1 signaling pathway was measured using a dual-luciferase reporter assay. Finally, a PANC-1 xenograft model was developed to evaluate the anti-tumor efficiency of combined treatment. Immunohistochemistry analysis was conducted to detect the expressions of HIF-1α and VEGF-A in tumor tissues.

RESULTS

VHH212 was stably expressed in tumor cells with low cytotoxicity, high affinity, specific subcellular localization, and neutralization of HIF-1α in the cytoplasm or nucleus. The binding affinity between VHH212 and the HIF-1α PAS-B domain was 42.7 nM. Intrabody competitive inhibition of the HIF-1α heterodimer with an aryl hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator was used to inhibit the HIF-1/VEGF pathway in vitro. Compared with single agent gemcitabine, co-treatment with gemcitabine and a VHH212-encoding adenovirus significantly suppressed tumor growth in the xenograft model with 80.44% tumor inhibition.

CONCLUSIONS

We developed an anti-HIF-1α nanobody and showed the function of VHH212 in a preclinical murine model of PANC-1 pancreatic cancer. The combination of VHH212 and gemcitabine significantly inhibited tumor development. These results suggested that combined use of anti-HIF-1α nanobodies with first-line treatment may in the future be an effective treatment for pancreatic cancer.

CSF1/CSF1R-mediated Crosstalk Between Choroidal Vascular Endothelial Cells and Macrophages Promotes Choroidal Neovascularization

Purpose

This study examined the role of the CSF1/CSF1Raxis in the crosstalk between choroidal vascular endothelial cells (CVECs) and macrophages during the formation of choroidal neovascularization (CNV).

Methods

Quantitative reverse transcriptase (QRT)-PCR, Western blot and ELISA measured the production and release of CSF1 from human choroidal vascular endothelial cells (HCVECs) under hypoxic conditions. Western blot detected CSF1 released from HCVECs under hypoxic conditions that activated the PI3K/AKT/FOXO1 axis in human macrophages via binding to CSF1R. Transwell migration assay, qRT-PCR, and Western blot detected the effect of CSF1 released from HCVECs on macrophage migration and M2 polarization via the CSF1R/PI3K/AKT/FOXO1 pathway. Incorporation of 5-ethynyl-20-deoxyuridine, transwell migration, and tube formation assays detected the effects of CSF1/CSF1R on the behaviors of HCVECs. Fundus fluorescein angiography (FFA), indocyanine green angiography (ICGA), and immunofluorescence detected the effect of blockade of CSF1/CSF1R on mouse laser-induced CNV. Color fundus photograph, ICGA, and FFA detected CNV lesions in neovascular AMD (nAMD) patients. ELISA detected CSF1 and CSF1R in the aqueous humor of age-related cataract and nAMD patients.

Results

CSF1 released from HCVECs under hypoxic conditions activated the PI3K/AKT/FOXO1 axis in human macrophages via binding to CSF1R, promoting macrophage migration and M2 polarization via up-regulation of the CSF1R/PI3K/AKT/FOXO1 pathway. Human macrophages promoted the proliferation, migration, and tube formation of HCVECs in a CSF1/CSFR1-dependent manner under hypoxic conditions. CSF1/CSF1R blockade ameliorated the formation of mouse laser-induced CNV. CSF1 and CSF1R were increased in the aqueous humor of nAMD patients.

Conclusions

Our results affirmed the crucial role of CSF1/CSF1R in boosting the formation of CNV and offered potential molecular targets for the treatment of nAMD.

The role of macrophage in regulating tumour microenvironment and the strategies for reprogramming tumour-associated macrophages in antitumour therapy

Tumour-associated macrophages (TAMs) that present abundantly in the tumour microenvironment (TME) exhibit a protumour property, such as promoting genetic instability, tumour metastasis and immunosuppression. Macrophage-targeted therapeutic approaches hence have been applied and shown their significances in the process of tumour immune treatment, including blocking TAM recruitment, depleting or transforming TAMs that already exist in the tumour site. Here, we summarized the functional regulation of TAMs in the respects of hypoxia environment, metabolism in the tumour microenvironment and the transcription factors involved. We reviewed the strategies for transforming TAMs, including immune stimuli targeting TAMs, inhibitors against TAMs, pathogen or irradiation stimulation on TAMs, and the application of natural compounds in TAMs. Furthermore, we also discussed the macrophage-targeted therapies in the clinical studies. Taken together, this review tries to shed light on the TAM regulation and the main strategies of TAM reprogramming for an enhanced immune surveillance.

Association between Inflammation and Function of Cell Adhesion Molecules Influence on Gastrointestinal Cancer Development

Gastrointestinal cancer is highly associated with inflammatory processes inducing the release of cytokines from cancer or immune cells, including interferons, interleukins, chemokines, colony-stimulating factors, and growth factors, which promote or suppress tumor progression. Inflammatory cytokines within the tumor microenvironment promote immune cell infiltration. Infiltrating immune, and tumor-surrounding stromal cells support tumor growth, angiogenesis, metastasis, and immunosuppression through communication with inflammatory cytokines and cell adhesion molecules. Notably, infiltrating immune and tumor cells present immunosuppressive molecules, such as programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) and CD80/CD86. Suppression of cytotoxic T cells promotes tumor avoidance of immune surveillance and greater malignancy. Moreover, glycosylation and sialylation of proteins hyperexpressed on the cancer cell surface have been shown to enhance immune escape and metastasis. Cytokine treatments and immune checkpoint inhibitors are widely used in clinical practice. However, the tumor microenvironment is a rapidly changing milieu involving several factors. In this review, we have provided a summary of the interactions of inflammation and cell adhesion molecules between cancer and other cell types, to improve understanding of the tumor microenvironment.

Genomic analysis of the prognostic value of colony-stimulating factors (CSFs) and colony-stimulating factor receptors (CSFRs) across 24 solid cancer types

Background

The prognostic roles of granulocyte-/granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (G-/GM-CSF) and its receptors (CSFRs) from the genomic perspective remain controversial. The aim of our study was to evaluate their prognostic value in multiple cancer types by analyzing omics data.

Methods

The omics data of G-/GM-CSF and receptors were obtained from the cBioportal database. Cutoff values were determined by X-tile. Overall survival (OS) was assessed by Kaplan–Meier curves. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and common regulated genes were analyzed using R software and Venny 2.1.0, while enrichment pathway analyses were performed by Metascape.

Results

A comprehensive mRNA analysis was performed in 8,565 patients across 24 cancer types. The combination subgroup of CSF2 and its receptors with high expression and favorable prognosis was associated with the activation of immune-related pathways, while the subgroup with unfavorable prognosis was associated with the activation of inflammatory and cellular pathways. As for the combination subgroup of CSF3 and its receptor, the high expression and poor prognosis subgroup was accompanied by the activation of inflammation and signaling transduction pathways.

Conclusions

The prognostic value of CSFs and CSFRs are cancer-type dependent. Therefore, personalized risk stratification based on CSF and CSFR pathway should be considered for cancer patients.

Pancreatic Cancer and Its Microenvironment-Recent Advances and Current Controversies

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) causes annually well over 400,000 deaths world-wide and remains one of the major unresolved health problems. This exocrine pancreatic cancer originates from the mutated epithelial cells: acinar and ductal cells. However, the epithelia-derived cancer component forms only a relatively small fraction of the tumor mass. The majority of the tumor consists of acellular fibrous stroma and diverse populations of the non-neoplastic cancer-associated cells. Importantly, the tumor microenvironment is maintained by dynamic cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions. In this article, we aim to review the most common drivers of PDAC. Then we summarize the current knowledge on PDAC microenvironment, particularly in relation to pancreatic cancer therapy. The focus is placed on the acellular stroma as well as cell populations that inhabit the matrix. We also describe the altered metabolism of PDAC and characterize cellular signaling in this cancer.