Clove essential oil-in-cyclodextrin-in-liposomes in the aqueous and lyophilized states: From laboratory to large scale using a membrane contactor

Formation and stability of green and low-cost magnetoliposomes of the soy lecithin, stigmasterol, and β-sitosterol for hyperthermia treatments

Magnetoliposomes containing magnetite, soy lecithin, stigmasterol, and beta-sitosterol of the mean size minor than 160 nm were obtained by a scalable and green process using autoclave and sonication without organic solvents. The formation, size of the liposome, linkage, and encapsulation of the magnetite were evaluated by Cryo-TEM. The stability of magnetoliposomes after storage for 6 months at 4 °C was improved by liposome size, the ability of soy lecithin to preserve the magnetite phase against oxidation, pH, polydispersity index, and zeta potential. The iron oxide phase stability was assessed using no conventional X-ray diffraction (high-resolution transmission electron microscopy), energy loss electron spectroscopy, and selected area electron diffraction) in time zero (fresh sample) and 6 months. The high zeta potential measured for magnetoliposomes, │53│ mV, indicated a low tendency to agglomerate. Lip-Fe3O4@lecithin with concentrations of 0.58 mg mL-1 of liposome showed high cell viability and are potential candidates for drug delivery and hyperthermia treatments in 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assays.

The application of cyclodextrins in drug solubilization and stabilization of nanoparticles for drug delivery and biomedical applications

Nanoparticles (NPs) have gained significant attention in recent years due to their potential applications in pharmaceutical formulations, drug delivery systems, and various biomedical fields. The versatility of colloidal NPs, including their ability to be tailored with various components and synthesis methods, enables drug delivery systems to achieve controlled release patterns, improved solubility, and increased bioavailability. The review discusses various types of NPs, such as nanocrystals, lipid-based NPs, and inorganic NPs (i.e., gold, silver, magnetic NPs), each offering unique advantages for drug delivery. Despite the promising potential of NPs, challenges such as physical instability and the need for surface stabilization remain. Strategies to overcome these challenges include the use of surfactants, polymers, and cyclodextrins (CDs). This review highlights the role of CDs in stabilizing colloidal NPs and enhancing drug solubility. The combination of CDs with NPs presents a synergistic approach that enhances drug delivery and broadens the range of biomedical applications. Additionally, the potential of CDs to enhance the stability and therapeutic efficacy of colloidal NPs, making them promising candidates for advanced drug delivery systems, is comprehensively reviewed.

Silibinin-Loaded Liposomes: The Influence of Modifications on Physicochemical Characteristics, Stability, and Bioactivity Associated with Dermal Application

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

The aims of the presented study were the development of four types of silibinin-loaded liposomes (multilamellar liposomes-MLVs, sonicated small unilamellar liposomes-SUVs, UV-irradiated liposomes, and lyophilized liposomes) and their physicochemical characterization and biological potential related to skin health benefits.

METHODS

The characterization was performed via the determination of the encapsulation efficiency (EE), particle size, polydispersity index, zeta potential, conductivity, mobility, storage stability, density, surface tension, viscosity, FT-IR, and Raman spectra. In addition, cytotoxicity on the keratinocytes and antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential were also determined.

RESULTS

UV irradiation significantly changed the rheological and chemical properties of the liposomes and increased their cytotoxic effect. The lyophilization of the liposomes caused significant changes in their EE and physical characteristics, decreased their ABTS and DPPH radical scavenging potential, and increased their potential to reduce the expression of interleukin 1 beta (IL-1β) in cells treated with bacterial lipopolysaccharide. Sonication significantly changed the EE and physical and rheological properties of the liposomes, and slightly increased their cytotoxicity and reduction effect on IL-1β, while the anti-ABTS and anti-DPPH capacity of the liposomes significantly increased. All developed liposomes showed an increasing trend in particle size and a decreasing trend in zeta potential (absolute values) during storage.

CONCLUSIONS

Silibinin-loaded liposomes (MLVs and lyophilized) showed promising antioxidant activity (toward reactive oxygen species generated in cells) and anti-inflammatory effects (reducing macrophage inhibitory factor expression) on keratinocytes and did not lead to a change in their viability. Future perspectives will focus on wound healing, anti-aging, and other potential of developed liposomes with silibinin in sophisticated cell-based models of skin diseases, wounds, and aging.

Clove Essential Oil: Chemical Profile, Biological Activities, Encapsulation Strategies, and Food Applications

Plants have proven to be important sources for discovering new compounds that are useful in the treatment of various diseases due to their phytoconstituents. Clove (Syzygium aromaticum L.), an aromatic plant widely cultivated around the world, has been traditionally used for food preservation and medicinal purposes. In particular, clove essential oil (CEO) has attracted attention for containing various bioactive compounds, such as phenolics (eugenol and eugenol acetate), terpenes (β-caryophyllene and α-humulene), and hydrocarbons. These constituents have found applications in cosmetics, food, and medicine industries due to their bioactivity. Pharmacologically, CEO has been tested against a variety of parasites and pathogenic microorganisms, demonstrating antibacterial and antifungal properties. Additionally, many studies have also demonstrated the analgesic, antioxidant, anticancer, antiseptic, and anti-inflammatory effects of this essential oil. However, CEO could degrade for different reasons, impacting its quality and bioactivity. To address this challenge, encapsulation is viewed as a promising strategy that could prolong the shelf life of CEO, improving its physicochemical stability and application in various areas. This review examines the phytochemical composition and biological activities of CEO and its constituents, as well as extraction methods to obtain it. Moreover, encapsulation strategies for CEO and numerous applications in different food fields are also highlighted.

Formulation of Metoclopramide Hydrochloride-Loaded Lipid Carriers by QbD Approach for Combating Nausea: Safety and Bioavailability Evaluation in New Zealand Rabbit

The focus of the research was to overcome the limitations of metoclopramide (MTC) when administered intranasally. The aim was to improve its bioavailability, increase patient compliance, and prolong its residence time in the nasal cavity. MTC-loaded liposomes were prepared by applying the film hydration method. A study was conducted to determine how formulation variables affected encapsulation efficiency (EE %), mean particle size (MPS), and zeta potential (ZP). The MTC-liposomes were further loaded into the in situ gel (gellan gum) for longer residence times following intranasal administration. pH, gelling time, and in vitro release tests were conducted on the formulations produced. In vivo performance of the MTC-loaded in situ gels was appraised based on disparate parameters such as plasma peak concentration, plasma peak time, and elimination coefficient compared to intravenous administration. When the optimal liposome formulation contained 1.98% of SPC, 0.081% of cholesterol, 97.84% of chloroform, and 0.1% of MTC, the EE of MTC was 83.21%, PS was 107.3 nm. After 5 h, more than 80% of the drug was released from MTC-loaded liposome incorporated into gellan gum in situ gel formulation (Lip-GG), which exhibited improved absorption and higher bioavailability compared to MTC loaded into gellan gum in situ gel (MTC-GG). Acceptable cell viability was also achieved. It was found out that MTC-loaded liposomal in situ gel formulations administered through the nasal route could be a better choice than other options due to its ease of administration, accurate dosing, and higher bioavailability in comparison with MTC-GG.

Novel nano-encapsulated limonene: Utilization of drug-in-cyclodextrin-in-liposome formulation to improve the stability and enhance the antioxidant activity

Drug-in-cyclodextrin-in-liposome (DCL) combines advantages of cyclodextrin and liposome. Here, DCL formulation was successfully prepared to encapsulate limonene (Lim), whose characterization revealed that particle size was 147.5 ± 1.3 nm and zeta potential was -48.7 ± 0.8 mV. And the complexation mechanism of Lim/HP-β-CD inclusion complex (the intermediate of DCL) was analyzed by molecular dynamics simulation, showing that Lim was entrapped into the cavity of HP-β-CD through electrostatic and hydrophobic interaction with a molar ratio of 1:1. Notably, DCL formulation not only reduced Lim volatilization in 25℃, but also enhanced the free radical (DPPH· and ABTS·+) scavenging ability of Lim. In summary, Lim-DCL formulation improved the stability and enhanced the antioxidant activity of Lim. DCL nanocarrier system is suitable to preserve volatile and hydrophobic compounds, enlarging their application in pharmaceutics industries.

Encapsulation and delivery systems of cinnamon essential oil for food preservation applications

Food safety threats and deterioration due to the invasion of microorganisms has led to economic losses and food-borne diseases in the food industry; so, development of natural food preservatives is urgently needed when considering the safety of chemically synthesized preservatives. Because of its outstanding antioxidant and antibacterial properties, cinnamon essential oil (CEO) is considered a promising natural preservative. However, CEO's low solubility and easy degradability limits its application in food products. Therefore, some encapsulation and delivery systems have been developed to improve CEO efficiency in food preservation applications. This work discusses the chemical and techno-functional properties of CEO, including its key components and antioxidant/antibacterial properties, and summarizes recent developments on encapsulation and delivery systems for CEO in food preservation applications. Since CEO is currently added to most biopolymeric films/coatings (BFCs) for food preservation, most studies have shown that encapsulation systems can improve the food preservation performance of BFCs containing CEOs. It has been confirmed that various delivery systems could improve the stability and controlled-release properties of CEO, thereby enhancing its ability to extend the shelf life of foods. These encapsulation techniques include spray drying, emulsion systems, complex coacervation (nanoprecipitation), ionic gelation, liposomes, inclusion complexation (cyclodextrins, silica), and electrospinning.

A Comparative Evaluation of Antioxidant Activity of Extract and Essential Oil of Origanum onites L. In Vivo

In the present study, the effects of Origanum onites L. extract and essential oil of O. onites L. on the antioxidant status of the liver and brain of mice were investigated. Due to certain disadvantages of essential oils, such as poor solubility, high volatility and sensitivity to UV light and heat, formulation of liposomes with Oregano essentials (OE) was optimized and used in this study. The results demonstrated that the best composition of the lipid carriers and OE were conducted in terms of the polydispersity index (PDI), mean particle size and encapsulation efficiency (EE). For further study the LE4 formulation was used, which contained Lipoid S100 at 45 mg, Lipoid S75 at 45 mg and 90 mg of EO. The administration of O. onites L. extract to mice for 21 days significantly decreased the glutathione (GSH) level in the livers and brains of the mice as well as the malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration in the livers. In the brains of the mice, MDA level significantly increased after this extract consumption. Whereas liposomes with OE significantly decreased GSH concentration in the mouse brain and MDA concentration in the mouse liver, there was an increased (p > 0.05) GSH level in the liver and MDA concentration in the brain of mice compared with the control group. It was found that both O. onites. ethanolic extract as well as liposomes with OE of this plant material affect the antioxidant status in the livers and brains of mice.

Development of gelatin-coated nanoliposomes loaded with β-cyclodextrin/vitamin D3 inclusion complex for nutritional therapy

The aim of this study was to synthesize of β-cyclodextrin/Vitamin D₃ (βCD/VitD₃) inclusion complex and encapsulation of this complex with gelatin-coated nanoliposomes (NLPs). Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy confirmed the formation of βCD/VitD₃ inclusion complex. In the next step, different gelatin concentrations (1, 2, and 4 mg/mL) were used to surface coat the blank NLPs. The concentration of 2 mg/mL of gelatin was chosen as the optimal concentration for coating the complex-loaded NLPs by considering particle size, morphology, and zeta potential. The particle size and zeta potential of the coated complex-loaded NLPs were 117 ± 2.55 nm and 19.8 ± 1.25 mV, respectively. The images taken by transmission electron microscopy confirmed the formation of a biopolymer layer of gelatin around the NLPs' vesicles. The complex encapsulation efficiency inside the NLPs was 81.09%. The βCD/VitD₃ complex loaded NLPs and its coated form exhibited a controlled release profile in simulated gastrointestinal condition.

OSA-starch stabilized EPA nanoliposomes: preparation, characterization, stability and digestion in vitro and in vivo

OSA-starch stabilized EPA nanoliposomes (OSA-EPA-NLs) were prepared by thin film rehydration/dispersion method. The physical properties and morphology of OSA-EPA-NLs were characterized. The best formulated sample was used to measure the storage stability and oxidative properties of EPA under different environmental stresses and to determine release and absorption of OSA-EPA-NLs in vitro and in vivo. The results showed that the encapsulation efficiency of OSA-EPA-NLs was 84.61%. All samples were relatively stable under different environmental stresses, and the release rate of EPA in simulated intestine stage (89.87%) was higher than that in the simulated gastric stage (5.86%). The areas under the EPA concentration-time curve of OSA-EPA-NLs group and EPA-NLs group through in vivo study were 0.42 and 0.32, respectively, which indicated that OSA-starch could improve the stability of EPA nanoliposomes and enhance EPA bioavailability in the form of ethyl esters.

Pheophorbide-a as a Light-Triggered Liposomal Switch: For the Controlled Release of Alpinia galanga (A. galanga) Essential Oil and Its Stability, Antioxidant, and Antibacterial Activity Assessment

In this study, Alpinia galanga essential oil liposomes (EO-Lip) were prepared with soybean lecithin and cholesterol as wall materials. A light-responsive liposome (EO-PLip) was designed for the controlled release of A. galanga oil based on the light-responsive properties of Pheophorbide-a. The dependence of Pheophorbide-a on illumination time was proved by UV spectroscopy. Characterization techniques such as UV spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy demonstrated that the essential oils were successfully encapsulated in liposomes. Moreover, the particle size of EO-PLip was 166.30 nm, the polydispersity index was 0.22, the zeta potential was -49.50 mV, and the encapsulation efficiency was 30.83%. Both EO-Lip and EO-Plip have high sustained-release effects on essential oil and showed light-responsive release characteristics under infrared stimulation. The prepared liposomes had good storage stability at 4 °C for 28 d. EO-PLip showed excellent transient antioxidant and bacteriostatic properties based on the ability to respond to light and slow release. This EO-PLip provided a platform for essential oils and might be used as a potent and controllable solution.

Vesicular Nanocarriers for Phytocompounds in Wound Care: Preparation and Characterization

The need to develop wound healing preparations is a pressing challenge given the limitations of the current treatment and the rising prevalence of impaired healing wounds. Although herbal extracts have been used for many years to treat skin disorders, due to their wound healing, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and antioxidant effects, their efficacy can be questionable because of their poor bioavailability and stability issues. Nanotechnology offers an opportunity to revolutionize wound healing therapies by including herbal compounds in nanosystems. Particularly, vesicular nanosystems exhibit beneficial properties, such as biocompatibility, targeted and sustained delivery capacity, and increased phytocompounds’ bioavailability and protection, conferring them a great potential for future applications in wound care. This review summarizes the beneficial effects of phytocompounds in wound healing and emphasizes the advantages of their entrapment in vesicular nanosystems. Different types of lipid nanocarriers are presented (liposomes, niosomes, transferosomes, ethosomes, cubosomes, and their derivates’ systems), highlighting their applications as carriers for phytocompounds in wound care, with the presentation of the state-of-art in this field. The methods of preparation, characterization, and evaluation are also described, underlining the properties that ensure good in vitro and in vivo performance. Finally, future directions of topical systems in which vesicle-bearing herbal extracts or phytocompounds can be incorporated are pointed out, as their development is emerging as a promising strategy.

Microencapsulation of Natural Food Antimicrobials: Methods and Applications

The global demand for safe and healthy food with minimal synthetic preservatives is continuously increasing. Some natural food antimicrobials with strong antimicrobial activity and low toxicity have been considered as alternatives for current commercial food preservatives. Nonetheless, these natural food antimicrobials are hardly applied directly to food products due to issues such as food flavor or bioavailability. Recent advances in microencapsulation technology have the potential to provide stable systems for these natural antibacterials, which can then be used directly in food matrices. In this review, we focus on the application of encapsulated natural antimicrobial agents, such as essential oils, plant extracts, bacteriocins, etc., as potential food preservatives to extend the shelf-life of food products. The advantages and drawbacks of the mainly used encapsulation methods, such as molecular inclusion, spray drying, coacervation, emulsification, supercritical antisolvent precipitation and liposome and alginate microbeads, are discussed. Meanwhile, the main current applications of encapsulated antimicrobials in various food products, such as meat, dairy and cereal products for controlling microbial growth, are presented.

Liposomal Delivery of Plant Bioactives Enhances Potency in Food Systems: A Review

The potency of plant bioactives may decline drastically upon exposure to harsh external environments including gastrointestinal conditions. The protective role played by liposomes contributes to desirable properties including increased stability, slow/controlled release, improved bioactivity, and enhanced bioavailability of the encapsulated bioactives. Also, the incorporation of plant bioactives encapsulated liposomes in food matrices has resulted in augmented sensory attributes and improved quality of the foods further exhibiting the aptness of liposomal applications in food. Excitingly, new opportunities that circumvent the major shortfalls of utilizing liposomal formulations in the food industry have arisen paving the way to yield food products with high quality.

Cyclodextrins-in-Liposomes: A Promising Delivery System for Lippia sidoides and Syzygium aromaticum Essential Oils

Biological activity of essential oils (EOs) has been extensively reported; however, their low aqueous solubility, high photosensitivity, and volatility compromise a broad industrial use of these compounds. To overcome these limitations, we proposed a nanoencapsulation approach to protect EOs, that aims to increase their stability and modulate their release profile. In this study, drug-in-cyclodextrin-in-liposomes encapsulating two essential oils (Lippia sidoides and Syzygium aromaticum) and their respective major compounds (thymol and eugenol) were produced by ethanol injection and freeze-dried to form proliposomes and further physicochemically characterized. Liposomes showed high physical stability over one month of storage at 4 °C, with slight changes in the mean size, polydispersity index (PDI), and zeta potential. Reconstituted proliposomes showed a mean size between 350 and 3300 nm, PDI from 0.29 to 0.41, and zeta potential between -22 and -26 mV. Differential scanning calorimetry and X-ray diffraction of proliposomes revealed a less-ordered crystalline structure, leading to high retention of the major bioactive compounds (between 73% and 93% for eugenol, and 74% and 84% for thymol). This work highlights the advantages of using drug-in-cyclodextrin-in-liposomes as delivery systems to retain volatile compounds, increasing their physicochemical stability and their promising potential to be utilized as carriers in products in the pharmaceutical, food, and cosmetic industries.

Encapsulation of α-Pinene in Delivery Systems Based on Liposomes and Cyclodextrins

The essential oil component α-pinene has multiple biological activities. However, its application is limited owing to its volatility, low aqueous solubility, and chemical instability. For the aim of improving its physicochemical properties, α-pinene was encapsulated in conventional liposomes (CLs) and drug-in-cyclodextrin-in-liposomes (DCLs). Hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin/α-pinene (HP-β-CD/α-pinene) inclusion complexes were prepared in aqueous solution, and the optimal solubilization of α-pinene occurred at HP-β-CD:α-pinene molar ratio of 7.5:1. The ethanol-injection method was applied to produce different formulations using saturated (Phospholipon 90H) or unsaturated (Lipoid S100) phospholipids in combination with cholesterol. The size, the phospholipid and cholesterol incorporation rates, the encapsulation efficiency (EE), and the loading rate (LR) of α-pinene were determined, and the storage stability of liposomes was assessed. The results showed that α-pinene was efficiently entrapped in CLs and DCLs with high EE values. Moreover, Lipoid S100 CLs displayed the highest LR (22.9 ± 2.2%) of α-pinene compared to the other formulations. Both carrier systems HP-β-CD/α-pinene inclusion complex and Lipoid S100 CLs presented a gradual release of α-pinene. Furthermore, the DPPH radical scavenging activity of α-pinene was maintained upon encapsulation in Lipoid S100 CLs. Finally, it was found that all formulations were stable after three months of storage at 4 °C.

Lipid Nanoparticulate Drug Delivery Systems: Recent Advances in the Treatment of Skin Disorders

The multifunctional role of the human skin is well known. It acts as a sensory and immune organ that protects the human body from harmful environmental impacts such as chemical, mechanical, and physical threats, reduces UV radiation effects, prevents moisture loss, and helps thermoregulation. In this regard, skin disorders related to skin integrity require adequate treatment. Lipid nanoparticles (LN) are recognized as promising drug delivery systems (DDS) in treating skin disorders. Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) together with nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) exhibit excellent tolerability as these are produced from physiological and biodegradable lipids. Moreover, LN applied to the skin can improve stability, drug targeting, occlusion, penetration enhancement, and increased skin hydration compared with other drug nanocarriers. Furthermore, the features of LN can be enhanced by inclusion in suitable bases such as creams, ointments, gels (i.e., hydrogel, emulgel, bigel), lotions, etc. This review focuses on recent developments in lipid nanoparticle systems and their application to treating skin diseases. We point out and consider the reasons for their creation, pay attention to their advantages and disadvantages, list the main production techniques for obtaining them, and examine the place assigned to them in solving the problems caused by skin disorders.

Selective antibacterial activities and storage stability of curcumin-loaded nanoliposomes prepared from bovine milk phospholipid and cholesterol

Present study prepared curcumin-loaded nanoliposomes using bovine milk, krill phospholipids and cholesterol; and investigated the effects of cholesterol on membrane characteristics, storage stability and antibacterial properties of the curcumin nanoliposomes. Bovine milk phospholipids which have higher saturation than krill phospholipids resulted in formation of curcumin-loaded nanoliposomes with higher encapsulation efficiency (84.78%), larger absolute value of zeta potential and vesicle size (size: 159.15 ± 5.27 nm, zeta potential: -28.3 ± 0.62 mV). Cholesterol helps to formation of a more hydrophobic, compact and tighter bilayer membrane structure which improved the storage stability of nanoliposomes under alkaline (66.25 ± 0.46%), heat (43.25 ± 0.69%) and sunlight (49.44 ± 1.78%) conditions. In addition, curcumin-loaded nanoliposomes can effectively target infectious bacteria which secrete pore-forming toxins such as Staphylococcus aureus by causing the bacterial cell wall to lysis. Findings from present work can guide future development of novel antibacterial agents for use in food preservation.

Post-Processing Techniques for the Improvement of Liposome Stability

Liposomes have been utilized as a drug delivery system to increase the bioavailability of drugs and to control the rate of drug release at the target site of action. However, the occurrence of self-aggregation, coalescence, flocculation and the precipitation of aqueous liposomes during formulation or storage can cause degradation of the vesicle structure, leading to the decomposition of liposomes. To increase the stability of liposomes, post-processing techniques have been applied as an additional process to liposomes after formulation to remove water and generate dry liposome particles with a higher stability and greater accessibility for drug administration in comparison with aqueous liposomes. This review covers the effect of these techniques including freeze drying, spray drying and spray freeze drying on the stability, physicochemical properties and drug encapsulation efficiency of dry liposomes. The parameters affecting the properties of liposomes during the drying process are also highlighted in this review. In addition, the impact of using a protective agent to overcome such limitations of each process is thoroughly discussed through various studies.

Nanocarriers for Biomedicine: From Lipid Formulations to Inorganic and Hybrid Nanoparticles

Encapsulation of cargoes in nanocontainers is widely used in different fields to solve the problems of their solubility, homogeneity, stability, protection from unwanted chemical and biological destructive effects, and functional activity improvement. This approach is of special importance in biomedicine, since this makes it possible to reduce the limitations of drug delivery related to the toxicity and side effects of therapeutics, their low bioavailability and biocompatibility. This review highlights current progress in the use of lipid systems to deliver active substances to the human body. Various lipid compositions modified with amphiphilic open-chain and macrocyclic compounds, peptide molecules and alternative target ligands are discussed. Liposome modification also evolves by creating new hybrid structures consisting of organic and inorganic parts. Such nanohybrid platforms include cerasomes, which are considered as alternative nanocarriers allowing to reduce inherent limitations of lipid nanoparticles. Compositions based on mesoporous silica are beginning to acquire no less relevance due to their unique features, such as advanced porous properties, well-proven drug delivery efficiency and their versatility for creating highly efficient nanomaterials. The types of silica nanoparticles, their efficacy in biomedical applications and hybrid inorganic-polymer platforms are the subject of discussion in this review, with current challenges emphasized.

Cyclodextrins as carriers for volatile aroma compounds: A review

Cyclodextrins (CDs) are edible and biocompatible natural cyclic compounds that can encapsulate essential oils, flavours, volatile aroma compounds, and other substances. Complexation with CD-based materials improves the solubility and stability of volatile compounds and protects the bioactivity of the core materials. Therefore, the development of CD/volatile compound nanosystems is a key research area in the food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries. This review briefly introduces the main types of natural CD; preparation methods of CD-based materials as carriers for aromatic substances or essential oils; characterisation methods used to calculate the interaction between CDs and volatile aroma compounds; molecular docking and simulation methods; and the application of CD-based nanosystems in different industries. The review aims to provide guidance for relevant practitioners in selecting appropriate CD materials and characterisation methods.

Plant oils: From chemical composition to encapsulated form use

The last decade has witnessed a burgeoning global movement towards essential and vegetable oils in the food, agriculture, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and textile industries thanks to their natural and safe status, broad acceptance by consumers, and versatile functional properties. However, efforts to develop new therapy or functional agents based on plant oils have met with challenges of limited stability and/or reduced efficacy. As a result, there has been increased research interest in the encapsulation of plant oils, whereby the nanocarriers serve as barrier between plant oils and the environment and control oil release leading to improved efficacy, reduced toxicity and enhanced patient compliance and convenience. In this review, special concern has been addressed to the encapsulation of essential and vegetable oils in three types of nanocarriers: polymeric nanoparticles, liposomes and solid lipid nanoparticles. First, the chemical composition of essential and vegetable oils was handled. Moreover, we gather together the research findings reported by the literature regarding the different techniques used to generate these nanocarriers with their significant findings. Finally, differences and similarities between these nanocarriers are discussed, along with current and future applications that are warranted by their structures and properties.

Liposomal Encapsulation of Carvacrol to Obtain Active Poly (Vinyl Alcohol) Films

Lecithins of different origins and compositions were used for the liposomal encapsulation of carvacrol within the framework of the development of active films for food packaging. Liposomes were incorporated into aqueous polymeric solutions from fully (F) and partially (P) hydrolysed Poly (vinyl alcohol) (PVA) to obtain the films by casting. The particle size distribution and ζ-potential of the liposomal suspensions, as well as their stability over time, were evaluated. Liposomal stability during film formation was analysed through the carvacrol retention in the dried film and the film microstructure. Subtle variations in the size distributions of liposomes from different lecithins were observed. However, the absolute values of the ζ-potential were higher (−52, −57 mV) for soy lecithin (SL) liposomes, followed by those of soy lecithin enriched with phosphatidylcholine (SL-PC) (−43, −50 mV) and sunflower lecithin (SFL) (−33, −38 mV). No significant changes in the liposomal properties were observed during the study period. Lyotropic mesomorphism of lipid associations and carvacrol leakage occurred to differing extents during the film drying step, depending on the membrane lipid composition and surface charge. Liposomes obtained with SL-PC were the most effective at maintaining the stability of carvacrol emulsion during film formation, which led to the greatest carvacrol retention in the films, whereas SFL gave rise to the least stable system and the highest carvacrol losses. P-PVA was less sensitive to the emulsion destabilisation due to its greater bonding capacity with carvacrol. Therefore, P-PVA with carvacrol-loaded SL-PC liposomes has great potential to produce active films for food packaging applications.

Biopolymer-liposome hybrid systems for controlled delivery of bioactive compounds: Recent advances

Conventional liposomes still face many challenges associated with the poor physical and chemical stability, considerable loss of encapsulated cargo, lack of stimulus responsiveness, and rapid elimination from blood circulation. Integration of versatile functional biopolymers has emerged as an attractive strategy to overcome the limitation of usage of liposomes. This review comprehensively summarizes the most recent studies (2015-2020) and their challenges aiming at the exploration of biopolymer-liposome hybrid systems, including surface-modified liposomes, biopolymer-incorporated liposomes, guest-in-cyclodextrin-in-liposome, liposome-in-hydrogel, liposome-in-film, and liposome-in-nanofiber. The physicochemical principles and key technical information underlying the combined strategies for the fabrication of polymeric liposomes, the advantages and limitations of each of the systems, and the stabilization mechanisms are discussed through various case studies. Special emphasis is directed toward the synergistic efficiencies of biopolymers and phospholipid bilayers on encapsulation, protection, and controlled delivery of bioactives (e.g., vitamins, carotenoids, phenolics, peptides, and other health-related compounds) for the biomedical, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and functional food applications. The major challenges, opportunities, and possible further developments for future studies are also highlighted.

Advancements in liposome technology: Preparation techniques and applications in food, functional foods, and bioactive delivery: A review

Liposomes play a significant role in encapsulation of various bioactive compounds (BACs), including functional food ingredients to improve the stability of core. This technology can be used for promoting an effective application in functional food and nutraceuticals. Incorporation of traditional and emerging methods for the developments of liposome for loading BACs resulted in viable and stable liposome formulations for industrial applications. Thus, the advance technologies such as supercritical fluidic methods, microfluidization, ultrasonication with traditional methods are revisited. Liposomes loaded with plant and animal BACs have been introduced for functional food and nutraceutical applications. In general, application of liposome systems improves stability, delivery, and bioavailability of BACs in functional food systems and nutraceuticals. This review covers the current techniques and methodologies developed and practiced in liposomal preparation and application in functional foods.

Essential Oils: Pharmaceutical Applications and Encapsulation Strategies into Lipid-Based Delivery Systems

Essential oils are being studied for more than 60 years, but a growing interest has emerged in the recent decades due to a desire for a rediscovery of natural remedies. Essential oils are known for millennia and, already in prehistoric times, they were used for medicinal and ritual purposes due to their therapeutic properties. Using a variety of methods refined over the centuries, essential oils are extracted from plant raw materials: the choice of the extraction method is decisive, since it determines the type, quantity, and stereochemical structure of the essential oil molecules. To these components belong all properties that make essential oils so interesting for pharmaceutical uses; the most investigated ones are antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, wound-healing, and anxiolytic activities. However, the main limitations to their use are their hydrophobicity, instability, high volatility, and risk of toxicity. A successful strategy to overcome these limitations is the encapsulation within delivery systems, which enable the increase of essential oils bioavailability and improve their chemical stability, while reducing their volatility and toxicity. Among all the suitable platforms, our review focused on the lipid-based ones, in particular micro- and nanoemulsions, liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, and nanostructured lipid carriers.

Nanoencapsulation of essential oils and their bioactive constituents: A novel strategy to control mycotoxin contamination in food system

Spoilage of food by mycotoxigenic fungi poses a serious risk to food security throughout the world. In view of the negative effects of synthetic preservatives, essential oils (EOs) and their bioactive constituents are gaining momentum as suitable substitute to ensure food safety by controlling mycotoxins. However, despite their proven preservative potential against mycotoxins, the use of EOs/bioactive constituents in real food system is still restricted due to instability caused by abiotic factors and negative impact on organoleptic attributes after direct application. Nanoencapsulation in this regard could be a promising approach to address these problems, since the process can increase the stability of EOs/bioactive constituents, barricades their loss and considerably prevent their interaction with food matrices, thus preserving their original organoleptic qualities. The aim of this review is to provide wider and up-to-date overview on recent advances in nanoencapsulation of EOs/bioactive constituents with the objective to control mycotoxin contamination in food system. Further, the information on polymer characteristics, nanoencapsulation techniques, factors affecting the nanoencapsulation, applications of nanoencapsulated formulations, and characterization along with the study on their release kinetics and impacts on organoleptic attributes of food are discussed. Finally, the safety aspects of nanoencapsulated formulations for their safe utilization are also explored.

The Incorporation of Carvacrol into Poly (vinyl alcohol) Films Encapsulated in Lecithin Liposomes

Lecithin-encapsulated carvacrol has been incorporated into poly (vinyl alcohol) (PVA) for the purpose of obtaining active films for food packaging application. The influence of molecular weight (Mw) and degree of hydrolysis (DH) of the polymer on its ability to retain carvacrol has been analysed, as well as the changes in the film microstructure, thermal behaviour, and functional properties as packaging material provoked by liposome incorporation into PVA matrices. The films were obtained by casting the PVA aqueous solutions where liposomes were incorporated until reaching 0 (non-loaded liposomes), 5 or 10 g carvacrol per 100 g polymer. The non-acetylated, high Mw polymer provided films with a better mechanical performance, but less CA retention and a more heterogeneous structure. In contrast, partially acetylated, low Mw PVA gave rise to more homogenous films with a higher carvacrol content. Lecithin enhanced the thermal stability of both kinds of PVA, but reduced the crystallinity degree of non-acetylated PVA films, although it did not affect this parameter in acetylated PVA when liposomes contained carvacrol. The mechanical and barrier properties of the films were modified by liposome incorporation in line with the induced changes in crystallinity and microstructure of the films.

Essential Oils-Loaded Electrospun Biopolymers: A Future Perspective for Active Food Packaging

The growth of global food demand combined with the increased appeal to access different foods from every corner of the globe is forcing the food industry to look for alternative technologies to increase the shelf life. Essential oils (EOs) as naturally occurring functional ingredients have shown great prospects in active food packaging. EOs can inhibit the growth of superficial food pathogens, modify nutritious values without affecting the sensory qualities of food, and prolong the shelf life when used in food packaging as an active ingredient. Since 2016, various reports have demonstrated that combinations of electrospun fibers and encapsulated EOs could offer promising results when used as food packaging. Such electrospun platforms have encapsulated either pure EOs or their complexation with other antibacterial agents to prolong the shelf life of food products through sustained release of active ingredients. This paper presents a comprehensive review of the essential oil-loaded electrospun fibers that have been applied as active food packaging material.

Effect of lyophilization on the physicochemical and rheological properties of food grade liposomes that encapsulate rutin

The potential use of liposomes as carriers for food active ingredients can be limited by their physical and chemical instabilities in aqueous dispersions, especially for long-term storage. Lyophilization, a process commonly used in the food industry, can also be applied to stabilize and preserve liposomes and to extend their shelf-life. In this work, liposomes with potential use for designing functional foods were prepared with soy phospholipids and rutin. Homogenization and ultrasound were used for particle size reduction. Liposomal stability was evaluated by Dynamic Light Scattering, microscopy and rheological properties. Spherical and unilamellar liposomes were obtained in this work. Zeta potential (ξ = values were around -40 mV), which indicates a great suspension stability even for more than 30 days of storage. Rutin exerted a protective effect by both preventing damage to the liposome bilayer and maintaining the spherical structure after 56 days of storage. Lyophilization caused an increase in the size of the vesicles, reaching sizes around 419 nm and aggregation of vesicles with probably structural damage after 21 storage days. However, it helped to keep the rutin encapsulated (81.9%) for longer time, when compared to refrigerated liposomes. Rheological measurements showed, in general, that the power law model fitted most of the experimental results and dynamic rheological tests showed a sol-gel phase transition between 35 and 45 °C. Lyophilization caused a significant change in all evaluated rheological parameters. For the in vitro release tests, the liposomal bilayer acted as a barrier for the rutin release to the food simulating medium; therefore, the release rate of the antioxidant from the rutin encapsulated liposome was slow compared to the free rutin release rate.

Use of free and encapsulated nerolidol to inhibit the survival of Lactobacillus fermentum in fresh orange juice

Lactobacillus fermentum is commonly responsible for fruit juice fermentation and spoilage. The aim of this study was to investigate the potential use of nerolidol to control the spoilage of fresh orange juice by L. fermentum. Nerolidol was incorporated into hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin inclusion complex, conventional liposome, and drug-in-cyclodextrin-in liposome systems. The systems were lyophilized and characterized with respect to their nerolidol content, size, and morphology. The effects of the acidity and cold storage of orange juice on the survival of L. fermentum were evaluated. Subsequently, the antibacterial activity of nerolidol in refrigerated orange juice was assessed at pH 3.3. Nerolidol showed a faster antibacterial activity at 4 000 μM (5 days) compared to 2 000 μM (8 days). Under the same conditions, the inclusion complex completely killed bacteria within 6 days of incubation at 4 000 μM, suggesting its potential application in fruit juices. Nerolidol-loaded liposomes did not exhibit an antibacterial activity and altered the appearance of juice.

Biofabrication of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles With Syzygium aromaticum Flower Buds Extract and Finding Its Novel Application in Controlling the Growth and Mycotoxins of Fusarium graminearum

Fusarium graminearum is a leading plant pathogen that causes Fusarium head blight, stalk rot, and Gibberella ear rot diseases in cereals and posing the immense threat to the microbiological safety of the food. Herein, we report the green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles from Syzygium aromaticum (SaZnO NPs) flower bud extract by combustion method and investigated their application for controlling of growth and mycotoxins of F. graminearum. Formation of SaZnO NPs was confirmed by spectroscopic methods. The electron microscopic (SEM and TEM) analysis revealed the formation of triangular and hexagonal shaped SaZnO NPs with size range 30-40 nm. The synthesized SaZnO NPs reduced the growth and production of deoxynivalenol and zearalenone of F. graminearum in broth culture. Further analysis revealed that treatment of mycelia with SaZnO NPs resulted in the accumulation of ROS in the dose-dependent manner. Also, SaZnO NPs treatment enhanced lipid peroxidation, depleted ergosterol content, and caused detrimental damage to the membrane integrity of fungi. Moreover, SEM observations revealed that the presence of diverged micro-morphology (wrinkled, rough and shrank surface) in the macroconidia treated with SaZnO NPs. Taken together, SaZnO NPs may find a potential application in agriculture and food industries due to their potent antifungal activity.

Novel cuminaldehyde self-emulsified nanoemulsion for enhanced antihepatotoxicity in carbon tetrachloride-treated mice

Objectives

Cuminaldehyde self-emulsified nanoemulsion (CuA-SEN) was prepared and optimised to improve its oral bioavailability and antihepatotoxicity.

Methods

Cuminaldehyde self-emulsified nanoemulsion was developed through the self-nanoemulsification method using Box–Behnken Design (BBD) tool while appropriate physicochemical indices were evaluated. The optimised CuA-SEN was characterised via droplet size (DS), morphology, polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential (ZP), entrapment efficiency, in-vitro release, and pharmacokinetic studies while its antihepatotoxicity was evaluated.

Key findings

Cuminaldehyde self-emulsified nanoemulsion with acceptable characteristics (mean DS-48.83 ± 1.06 nm; PDI-0.232 ± 0.140; ZP-29.92 ± 1.66 mV; EE-91.51 ± 0.44%; and drug-loading capacity (DL)-9.77 ± 0.75%) was formulated. In-vitro drug release of CuA-SEN significantly increased with an oral relative bioavailability of 171.02%. Oral administration of CuA-SEN to CCl4-induced hepatotoxicity mice markedly increased the levels of superoxide dismutase, glutathione and catalase in serum. Also, CuA-SEN reduced the levels of tumour necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-6 in both serum and liver tissues while aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase and malonaldehyde levels were significantly decreased.

Conclusions

These findings showed that the improved bioavailability of cuminaldehyde via SEN provided an effective approach for enhancing antioxidation, anti-inflammation and antihepatotoxicity of the drug.

Improved Expression and Optimization of Trehalose Synthase by Regulation of Pglv in Bacillus subtilis

Trehalose synthase (TreS) converts maltose to trehalose, which has several important functions; therefore, enhancing TreS expression is desirable. Here, a recombinant Bacillus subtilis W800N (ΔamyE)-P_glv strain was constructed to achieve enhanced expression of TreS. Process optimization strategies were developed to improve the expression level of TreS in B. subtilis W800N (ΔamyE)-P_glv. Intracellular activity of TreS was induced using 60 g/L of maltose in shake flask culture. The protein activity reached 5211 ± 134 U/g at 33 °C and pH 7.0 in Luria-Bertani medium. A fed-batch fermentation strategy was applied in a 30 L fermenter containing 18 L terrific broth to achieve high cell density by replacing glycerol with high maltose syrup as a carbon source and an inducer. After 32 h of fermentation, recombinant B. subtilis W800N (ΔamyE)-P_glv activity reached 6850 ± 287 U/g dry cell weight. Our results demonstrate the efficiency of the P_glv promoter in increasing the expression of TreS in B. subtilis W800N (ΔamyE)-P_glv.