Enhanced cytotoxic and apoptotic potential in hepatic carcinoma cells of chitosan nanoparticles loaded with ginsenoside compound K

Ursodeoxycholic acid grafted chitosan oligosaccharide self-assembled micelles with enhanced oral absorption and antidiabetic effect of oleanolic acid

Oleanolic acid (OA) is a food-derived bioactive component with antidiabetic activity, but its water solubility and oral bioavailability are notably restricted. In this study, to overcome these limitations, ursodeoxycholic acid-modified chitosan oligosaccharide (UCOS) was synthesized to encapsulate OA in self-assembled nanomicelles (UCOS-OA). The encapsulation efficiency and drug loading of UCOS-OA were 86 % and 11 %, respectively. UCOS-OA exhibited enhanced gastrointestinal stability and prolonged intestinal retention time when compared with free OA, resulting in a 10.6-fold increase in oral bioavailability. The enhanced antidiabetic activity of UCOS-OA was confirmed in the type 2 diabetes mellitus mice model, as it significantly improved glycolipid metabolism disorders and mitigated liver injury. Furthermore, UCOS-OA ameliorated the dysbiosis of gut microbiota and fecal metabolites. In conclusion, UCOS serves as an effective polymeric carrier for encapsulating OA, thereby improving its bioavailability and antidiabetic activity. This work provides valuable insights for the advancement of oral delivery systems for bioactive compounds.

Recent advances in polymeric nanoparticles for the treatment of hepatic diseases

The liver performs crucial roles in energy metabolism, detoxification, and immune regulation. Hepatic diseases, including hepatitis, liver fibrosis, and liver cancer, have posed a significant threat to global health, emphasizing the critical need for the development of novel and effective treatment approaches. Nanotechnology, an emerging technology, has been extensively researched in medicine. Among the many types of nanomaterials, polymeric nanoparticles (NPs) are widely used in drug delivery systems. Compared to traditional therapies, they offer significant advantages in the treatment of liver disease by improving outcomes and reducing side effects. This review introduced the development of liver disease and discussed the application of natural polymers and synthetic polymers in their management. Furthermore, this paper reviewed the application of polymeric nanoparticles -mainly chitosan (CS), hyaluronic acid (HA), polyethylene glycol (PEG) and poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA)-in liver disease treatment, focusing on their use in various delivery systems for pure bioactive compounds of natural origin, drugs, nucleic acids, peptides, and others. Finally, the challenges and future perspectives of the NPs were discussed to provide guidance for further research directions, with the aim of promoting the clinical application of nanotherapeutics in treating hepatic diseases.

Advanced Carriers for Precise Delivery and Therapeutic Mechanisms of Traditional Chinese Medicines: Integrating Spatial Multi-Omics and Delivery Visualization

The complex composition of traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) has posed challenges for in-depth study and global application, despite their abundance of bioactive compounds that make them valuable resources for disease treatment. To overcome these obstacles, it is essential to modernize TCMs by focusing on precise disease treatment. This involves elucidating the structure-activity relationships within their complex compositions, ensuring accurate in vivo delivery, and monitoring the delivery process. This review discusses the research progress of TCMs in precision disease treatment from three perspectives: spatial multi-omics technology for precision therapeutic activity, carrier systems for precise in vivo delivery, and medical imaging technology for visualizing the delivery process. The aim is to establish a novel research paradigm that advances the precision therapy of TCMs.

Ginsenoside, a potential natural product against liver diseases: a comprehensive review from molecular mechanisms to application

Liver disease constitutes a significant cause of global mortality, with its pathogenesis being multifaceted. Identifying effective pharmacological and preventive strategies is imperative for liver protection. Ginsenosides, the major bioactive compounds found in ginseng, exhibit multiple pharmacological activities including protection against liver-related diseases by mitigating liver fat accumulation and inflammation, preventing hepatic fibrosis, and exerting anti-hepatocarcinogenic effects. However, a comprehensive overview elucidating the regulatory pathways associated with ginsenosides in liver disease remains elusive. This review aims to consolidate the molecular mechanisms through which different ginsenosides ameliorate distinct liver diseases, alongside the pathogenic factors underlying liver ailments. Notably, ginsenosides Rb1 and Rg1 demonstrate significantly effective in treating fatty liver, hepatitis, and liver fibrosis, and ginsenosides CK and Rh2 exhibit potent anti-hepatocellular carcinogenic effects. Their molecular mechanisms underlying these effects primarily involve the modulation of AMPK, NF-κB, TGF-β, NFR2, JNK, and other pathways, thereby attenuating hepatic fat accumulation, inflammation, inhibition of hepatic stellate cell activation, and promoting apoptosis in hepatocellular carcinoma cells. Furthermore, it provides insights into the safety profile and current applications of ginsenosides, thereby facilitating their clinical development. Consequently, ginsenosides present promising prospects for liver disease management, underscoring their potential as valuable therapeutic agents in this context.

Traditional Chinese medicine for the treatment of cancers of hepatobiliary system: from clinical evidence to drug discovery

Hepatic, biliary, and pancreatic cancer pose significant challenges in the field of digestive system diseases due to their highly malignant nature. Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has gained attention as a potential therapeutic approach with long-standing use in China and well-recognized clinical benefits. In this review, we systematically summarized the clinical applications of TCM that have shown promising results in clinical trials in treating hepatic, biliary, and pancreatic cancer. We highlighted several commonly used TCM therapeutics with validated efficacy through rigorous clinical trials, including Huaier Granule, Huachansu, and Icaritin. The active compounds and their potential targets have been thoroughly elucidated to offer valuable insights into the potential of TCM for anti-cancer drug discovery. We emphasized the importance of further research to bridge the gap between TCM and modern oncology, facilitating the development of evidence-based TCM treatment for these challenging malignancies.

Preparation of pH-sensitive carboxymethyl chitosan nanoparticles loaded with ginsenoside Rb1 and evaluation of drug release in vitro

Oral absorption of ginsenoside Rb1 (Rb1) is often hindered by the gastrointestinal tract. Carboxymethyl chitosan deoxycholic acid loaded with ginsenoside Rb1 nanoparticles (CMDA@Rb1-NPs), were prepared as a delivery system using a self-assembly technique with amphipathic deoxycholic acid grafted carboxymethyl chitosan as the carrier, which improved the stability and embedding rate of Rb1. In addition, the CMDA@Rb1-NPs was encapsulated with sodium alginate by ion crosslinking method with additional layer (CMDAlg@Rb1-NPs). Scanning electron microscopy showed that the nanoparticles were spherical, evenly distributed, smooth and without obvious adhesion. By evaluating drug loading, entrapment efficiency, the encapsulation efficiency of Rb1 increased from 60.07 % to 72.14 % after grafting deoxycholic acid improvement and optimization. In vitro release results showed that the cumulative release of Rb1 by CMDAlg-NPs showed a pH dependent effect, which was <10 % in simulated gastric juice with pH 1.2, completely released with pH 7.4 for about 48 h. In addition, Rb1 and CMDAlg@Rb1-NPs had inhibitory effects on A549 cells, and the inhibitory effect of CMDAlg@Rb1-NPs was better. Therefore, all results indicated that CMDA/Alg@Rb1 nanoparticles might be a novel drug delivery system to improve the stability and embedding rate of Rb1, and has the potential to be applied in oral pharmaceutical preparations.

Self-assembled nanodrug delivery systems for anti-cancer drugs from traditional Chinese medicine

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is a combination of raw herbs and herbal extracts with a plethora of documented beneficial bioactivities, which has unique advantages in anti-tumor therapy, and many of its major bioactive molecules have been identified in recent years due to advances in chemical separation and structural analysis. However, the major chemical classes of plant-derived bioactive compounds frequently possess chemical properties, including poor water solubility, stability, and bioavailability, that limit their therapeutic application. Alternatively, natural small molecules (NSMs) containing these components possess modifiable groups, multiple action sites, hydrophobic side chains, and a rigid skeleton with self-assembly properties that can be exploited to construct self-assembled nanoparticles with therapeutic effects superior to their individual constituents. For instance, the construction of a self-assembled nanodrug delivery system can effectively overcome the strong hydrophobicity and poor in vivo stability of NSMs, thereby greatly improving their bioavailability and enhancing their anti-tumor efficacy. This review summarizes the self-assembly methods, mechanisms, and applications of a variety of NSMs, including terpenoids, flavonoids, alkaloids, polyphenols, and saponins, providing a theoretical basis for the subsequent research on NSMs and the development of SANDDS.

A comprehensive and systemic review of ginseng-based nanomaterials: Synthesis, targeted delivery, and biomedical applications

Among 17 Panax species identified across the world, Panax ginseng (Korean ginseng), Panax quinquefolius (American ginseng), and Panax notoginseng (Chinese ginseng) are highly recognized for the presence of bioactive compound, ginsenosides and their pharmacological effects. P. ginseng is widely used for synthesis of different types of nanoparticles compared to P. quinquefolius and P. notoginseng. The use of nano-ginseng could increase the oral bioavailability, membrane permeability, and thus provide effective delivery of ginsenosides to the target sites through transport system. In this review, we explore the synthesis of ginseng nanoparticles using plant extracts from various organs, microbes, and polymers, as well as their biomedical applications. Furthermore, we highlight transporters involved in transport of ginsenoside nanoparticles to the target sites. Size, zeta potential, temperature, and pH are also discussed as the critical parameters affecting the quality of ginseng nanoparticles synthesis.

Combinatorial Enzymatic Catalysis for Bioproduction of Ginsenoside Compound K

Ginsenoside compound K (CK) is an emerging functional food or pharmaceutical product. To date, there are still challenges to exploring effective catalytic enzymes for enzyme-catalyzed manufacturing processes and establishing enzyme-catalyzed processes. Herein, we identified three ginsenoside hydrolases BG07 (glucoamylase), BG19 (β-glucosidase), and BG23 (β-glucosidase) from Aspergillus tubingensis JE0609 by transcriptome analysis and peptide mass fingerprinting. Among them, BG23 was expressed in Komagataella phaffii with a high volumetric activity of 235.73 U mL-1 (pNPG). Enzymatic property studies have shown that BG23 is an acidic (pH adaptation range of 4.5-7.0) and mesophilic (thermostable < 50 °C) enzyme. Moreover, a one-pot combinatorial enzyme-catalyzed strategy based on BG23 and BGA35 (β-galactosidase from Aspergillus oryzae) was established, with a high CK yield of 396.7 mg L-1 h-1. This study explored the ginsenoside hydrolases derived from A. tubingensis at the molecular level and provided a reference for the efficient production of CK.

High-Value Bioconversion of Ginseng Extracts in Betaine-Based Deep Eutectic Solvents for the Preparation of Deglycosylated Ginsenosides

Deep eutectic solvents (DES), as a green alternative to traditional organic solvents in biocatalysis, not only activate proteins but even increase the efficiency of enzymatic reactions. Here, DES were used in a combinatorial enzyme-catalyzed system containing β-glucosidase BGLAt and β-galactosidase BGALAo to produce deglycosylated ginsenosides (De-g) from ginseng extracts (GE). The results showed that DES prepared with betaine and ethylene glycol (molar ratio, 1:2) could significantly stimulate the activity of the combinatorial enzymes as well as improve the acid resistance and temperature stability. The DES-based combinatorial enzyme-catalyzed system could convert 5 g of GE into 1.24 g of De-g (F1, F2, 20 (S)-PPT, and CK) at 24 h, which was 1.1 times that of the buffer sample. As confirmed by the spectral data, the changes in the conformations of the combinatorial enzymes were more favorable for the binding reaction with the substrates. Moreover, the constructed DES-based aqueous two-phase system enabled the recovery of substantial amounts of DES and De-g from the top phase. These results demonstrated that DES shows great application as a reaction solvent for the scale-up production of De-g and provide insights for the green extraction of natural products.

Ginsenoside Rg3 nanoparticles with permeation enhancing based chitosan derivatives were encapsulated with doxorubicin by thermosensitive hydrogel and anti-cancer evaluation of peritumoral hydrogel injection combined with PD-L1 antibody

BACKGROUND

Combination of chemotherapy and immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy has greatly improved the anticancer effect on multiple malignancies. However, the efficiency on triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is limited, since most patients bear "cold" tumors with low tumor immunogenicity. Doxorubicin (DOX), one of the most effective chemotherapy agents, can induce immunogenic cell death (ICD) and thus initiating immune response.

METHODS

In this study, to maximize the ICD effect induced by DOX, chitosan and cell-penetrating peptide (R6F3)-modified nanoparticles (PNPs) loaded with ginsenoside Rg3 (Rg3) were fabricated using the self-assembly technique, followed by co-encapsulation with DOX based on thermo-sensitive hydrogel. Orthotopic tumor model and contralateral tumor model were established to observe the antitumor efficacy of the thermo-sensitive hydrogel combined with anti-PD-L1 immunotherapy, besides, the biocompatibility was also evaluated by histopathological.

RESULTS

Rg3-PNPs strengthened the immunogenic cell death (ICD) effect induced by DOX. Moreover, the hydrogel co-loading Rg3-PNPs and DOX provoked stronger immune response in originally nonimmunogenic 4T1 tumors than DOX monotherapy. Following combination with PD-L1 blocking, substantial antitumor effect was achieved due to the recruitment of memory T cells and the decline of adaptive PD-L1 enrichment.

CONCLUSION

The hydrogel encapsulating DOX and highly permeable Rg3-PNPs provided an efficient strategy for remodeling immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment and converting immune "cold" 4T1 into "hot" tumors.

Ginsenoside compound K-loaded gold nanoparticles synthesized from Curtobacterium proimmune K3 exerts anti-gastric cancer effect via promoting PI3K/Akt-mediated apoptosis

Background

Compound K (CK) is the minor ginsenoside present in fermented Panax ginseng extract. Despite the pharmacological efficacy of CK, its industrial use has been restricted due to its low water solubility and poor permeability. To overcome this defect, our study was to synthesize gold nanoparticles from CK (CK-AuNPs) to investigate their potential as anticancer candidates.

Methods

To biologically synthesize CK-AuNPs, a novel strain, Curtobacterium proimmune K3, was isolated from fermented ginseng beverage, then combined with CK and gold salts to biosynthesize gold nanoparticles (CurtoCK-AuNPs). Their physicochemical characteristics were evaluated using UV–Vis spectrometry, FE-TEM, EDX, elemental mapping, XRD, SAED, DLS and TGA.

Results

CurtoCK-AuNPs exerted significant selective cytotoxic effects on AGS human gastric cancer cells. Fluorescence staining with Hoechst, propidium iodide, and MitoTracker demonstrated that CurtoCK-AuNPs induce apoptosis and mitochondrial damage, respectively. Quantitative real-time PCR and western blotting analyses showed that cytotoxic effect of CurtoCK-AuNPs were involved in apoptosis, based on their activation of Bax/Bcl-2, cytochrome c, caspase 9, and caspase 3, as well as their suppression of PI3K–Akt signaling.

Conclusion

Our findings provide data for understanding the molecular mechanisms of nanoparticles; thus, providing insight into the development of alternative medications based on gold nanoparticles of ginseng-derived CK.

Preparation and pharmacological effects of minor ginsenoside nanoparticles: a review

Ginseng (Panax ginseng) is a perennial herbaceous plant belonging to Panax genus of Araliaceae. Ginsenosides are a kind of important compounds in ginseng and minor ginsenosides are secondary metabolic derivatives of ginsenosides. Studies have shown that minor ginsenosides have many pharmacological effects, such as antioxidant, anti-tumor, anti-platelet aggregation, and neuroprotective effects. However, the therapeutic effects of minor ginsenosides are limited due to poor solubility in water, short half-life, and poor targeting accuracy. In recent years, to improve the application efficiency, the research on the nanocrystallization of minor ginsenosides have attracted extensive attention from researchers. This review focuses on the classification, preparation methods, pharmacological effects, and action mechanisms of minor ginsenoside nanoparticles, as well as existing problems and future direction of relevant research, which provides a reference for the in-depth research of minor ginsenoside nanoparticles.

Insight on structural modification, biological activity, structure-activity relationship of PPD-type ginsenoside derivatives

Ginsenosides, characterized by triterpenoid, are one of the active components of ginseng. Among them, PPD-type ginsenosides have potent and diverse pharmacological activities, while the effective applications and clinical studies are limited by the poor stability, water solubility and oral bioavailability. In this review, we have attempted to demonstrate the structural-activity relationship of chemical modifications on the dammarane-type skeleton and the C-17 side chain, noting that certain structurally modified derivatives exhibit satisfactory pharmacological activity. This review will provide ideas for the design and synthesis of novel PPD derivatives, and valuable help for the further study of PPD derivatives to make it realize clinical application.

Functional Mechanism of Ginsenoside Compound K on Tumor Growth and Metastasis

Ginsenosides, as the most important constituents of ginseng, have been extensively investigated in cancer chemoprevention and therapeutics. Among the ginsenosides, Compound K (CK), a rare protopanaxadiol type of ginsenoside, has been most broadly used for cancer treatment due to its high anticancer bioactivity. However, the functional mechanism of CK in cancer is not well known. This review describes the structure, transformation and pharmacological activity of CK and discusses the functional mechanisms of CK and its metabolites, which regulate signaling pathways related to tumor growth and metastasis. CK inhibits tumor growth by inducing tumor apoptosis and tumor cell differentiation, regulates the tumor microenvironment by suppressing tumor angiogenesis-related proteins, and downregulates the roles of immunosuppressive cells, such as myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs). There is currently much research on the potential development of CK as a new strategy when administered alone or in combination with other compounds.

Ginsenoside Compound K Assisted G-Quadruplex Folding and Regulated G-Quadruplex-Containing Transcription

Ginsenoside compound K (CK) is one of the major metabolites of the bioactive ingredients in Panax ginseng, which presents excellent bioactivity and regulates the expression of important proteins. In this work, the effects of CK on G-quadruplexes (G4s) were quantitatively analyzed in the presence and absence of their complementary sequences. CK was demonstrated to facilitate the formation of G4s, and increase the quantity of G4s in the competition with duplex. Thermodynamic experiments suggested that the electrostatic interactions were important for G4 stabilization by CK. CK was further found to regulate the transcription of G4-containing templates, reduce full-length transcripts, and decrease the transcription efficiency. Our results provide new evidence for the pharmacological study of ginsenosides at the gene level.

Anticancer properties and pharmaceutical applications of ginsenoside compound K: A review

Ginsenoside compound K (CK) is the major intestinal bacterial metabolite of ginsenosides that exhibits anticancer potential in various cancer cells both in vitro and in vivo. The anticancer types, mechanisms, and effects of CK in the past decade have been summarized in this review. Briefly, CK exerts anticancer effects via multiple molecular mechanisms, including the inhibition of proliferation, invasion, and migration, the induction of apoptosis and autophagy, and anti‐angiogenesis. Some signaling pathways play a significant role in related processes, such as PI3K/Akt/mTOR, JNK/MAPK pathway, and reactive oxygen species (ROS). Moreover, the effects of CK combined with nanocarriers for anticancer efficiency are discussed in this review. Furthermore, we aimed to review the research progress of CK against cancer in the past decade, which might provide theoretical support and effective reference for further research on the medicinal value of small molecules, such as CK.

Ginsenosides emerging as both bifunctional drugs and nanocarriers for enhanced antitumor therapies

Ginsenosides, the main components isolated from Panax ginseng, can play a therapeutic role by inducing tumor cell apoptosis and reducing proliferation, invasion, metastasis; by enhancing immune regulation; and by reversing tumor cell multidrug resistance. However, clinical applications have been limited because of ginsenosides' physical and chemical properties such as low solubility and poor stability, as well as their short half-life, easy elimination, degradation, and other pharmacokinetic properties in vivo. In recent years, developing a ginsenoside delivery system for bifunctional drugs or carriers has attracted much attention from researchers. To create a precise treatment strategy for cancer, a variety of nano delivery systems and preparation technologies based on ginsenosides have been conducted (e.g., polymer nanoparticles [NPs], liposomes, micelles, microemulsions, protein NPs, metals and inorganic NPs, biomimetic NPs). It is desirable to design a targeted delivery system to achieve antitumor efficacy that can not only cross various barriers but also can enhance immune regulation, eventually converting to a clinical application. Therefore, this review focused on the latest research about delivery systems encapsulated or modified with ginsenosides, and unification of medicines and excipients based on ginsenosides for improving drug bioavailability and targeting ability. In addition, challenges and new treatment methods were discussed to support the development of these new tumor therapeutic agents for use in clinical treatment.

Antitumor Effects of Triterpenes in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Triterpenes are a large group of secondary metabolites mainly produced by plants with a variety of biological activities, including potential antitumor effects. Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a very common primary liver disease spread worldwide. The treatment can consist of surgical intervention, radiotherapy, immunotherapy and chemotherapeutic drugs. These drugs mainly include tyrosine multikinase inhibitors, although their use is limited by the underlying liver disease and displays side effects. For that reason, the utility of natural compounds such as triterpenes to treat HCC is an interesting line of research. No clinical studies are reported in humans so far.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of the present work is to review the knowledge about the effects of triterpenes as a possible coadjuvant tool to treat HCC.

RESULTS

In vitro and xenograft models have pointed out the cytotoxic and anti-proliferative effects as well as improvements in tumor growth and development of many triterpenes. In addition, they have also shown to be chemosensitizing agents when co-administered with chemotherapeutic agents. The mechanisms of action are diverse and involve the participation of mitogen-activated protein kinases, including JNK, p38 MAPK and ERK, and the survival-associated PI3K / Akt signaling pathway. However, no clinical studies are still reported in humans.

CONCLUSION

Triterpenes could become a future strategy to address HCC or at least improve results when administered in combination with chemotherapeutic agents.

Inhibitory Effect of pH-Responsive Nanogel Encapsulating Ginsenoside CK against Lung Cancer

Ginsenoside CK is one of the intestinal bacterial metabolites of ginsenoside prototype saponins, such as ginsenoside Rb1, Rb2, Rc, and Rd. Poor water solubility and low bioavailability have limited its application. The nanogel carriers could specifically deliver hydrophobic drugs to cancer cells. Therefore, in this study, a nanogel was constructed by the formation of Schiff base bonds between hydrazide-modified carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC-NH₂) and aldehyde-modified β-cyclodextrin (β-CD-CHO). A water-in-oil reverse microemulsion method was utilized to encapsulate ginsenoside CK via the hydrophobic cavity of β-CD. β-CD-CHO with a unique hydrophobic cavity carried out efficient encapsulation of CK, and the drug loading and encapsulation efficiency were 16.4% and 70.9%, respectively. The drug release of CK-loaded nanogels (CK-Ngs) in vitro was investigated in different pH environments, and the results showed that the cumulative release rate at pH 5.8 was 85.5% after 140 h. The methylthiazolyldiphenyl-tetrazolium bromide (MTT) toxicity analysis indicated that the survival rates of A549 cells in CK-Ngs at 96 h was 2.98% compared to that of CK (11.34%). In vivo animal experiments exhibited that the inhibitory rates of CK-Ngs against tumor volume was 73.8%, which was higher than that of CK (66.1%). Collectively, the pH-responsive nanogel prepared herein could be considered as a potential nanocarrier for CK to improve its antitumor effects against lung cancer.

Nanochitosan: Commemorating the Metamorphosis of an ExoSkeletal Waste to a Versatile Nutraceutical

Chitin (poly-N-acetyl-D-glucosamine) is the second (after cellulose) most abundant organic polymer. In its deacetylated form-chitosan-becomes a very interesting material for medical use. The chitosan nano-structures whose preparation is described in this article shows unique biomedical value. The preparation of nanochitosan, as well as the most vital biomedical applications (antitumor, drug delivery and other medical uses), have been discussed in this review. The challenges confronting the progress of nanochitosan from benchtop to bedside clinical settings have been evaluated. The need for inclusion of nano aspects into chitosan research, with improvisation from nanotechnological inputs has been prescribed for breaking down the limitations. Future perspectives of nanochitosan and the challenges facing nanochitosan applications and the areas needing research focus have been highlighted.

Marine-derived drugs: Recent advances in cancer therapy and immune signaling

The marine environment is an enormous source of marine-derived natural products (MNPs), and future investigation into anticancer drug discovery. Current progress in anticancer drugs offers a rise in isolation and clinical validation of numerous innovative developments and advances in anticancer therapy. However, only a limited number of FDA-approved marine-derived anticancer drugs are available due to several challenges and limitations highlighted here. The use of chitosan in developing marine-derived drugs is promising in the nanotech sector projected for a prolific anticancer drug delivery system (DDS). The cGAS-STING-mediated immune signaling pathway is crucial, which has not been significantly investigated in anticancer therapy and needs further attention. Additionally, a small range of anticancer mediators is currently involved in regulating various JAK/STAT signaling pathways, such as immunity, cell death, and tumor formation. This review addressed critical features associated with MNPs, origin, and development of anticancer drugs. Moreover, recent advances in the nanotech delivery of anticancer drugs and understanding into cancer immunity are detailed for improved human health.

The effects of cytarabine combined with ginsenoside compound K synergistically induce DNA damage in acute myeloid leukemia cells

AML is a kind of hematological malignant tumor that urgently requires different treatment options in order to increase the cure rate and survival rate. Cytarabine (ara-C) is currently the main drug used to treat AML patients and is usually combined with different chemotherapeutic agents. However, due to resistance to ara-C, a new combination is needed to reduce ara-C resistance and improve treatment outcome. As is known to all, ginseng is a traditional Chinese herb; compound K is the principal metabolic product of ginsenoside which also has anti-cancer activity in some cancer cells, while the mechanism is unclear. In our previous study, we found that compound K inhibited AML cell viability and induced apoptosis, and compound K combined with ara-C synergistically induced AML cell proliferation arrest. Thus, we sought to investigate the reason for this by focusing on the mitochondrial dysfunction and DNA damage. In this paper, our results provide a foundation for the clinical evaluation of concomitant administration of compound K and ara-C in order to reduce the resistance to ara-C and improve AML treatment.

Ginsenoside Compound K Attenuates Ox-LDL-Mediated Macrophage Inflammation and Foam Cell Formation via Autophagy Induction and Modulating NF-κB, p38, and JNK MAPK Signaling

Atherosclerosis is a major reason for the high morbidity and mortality of cardiovascular diseases. Macrophage inflammation and foam cell formation are the key pathological processes of atherosclerosis. Ginsenoside compound K (CK) is a metabolite derived from ginseng. CK has anti atherosclerotic effect, but the molecular mechanism remains to be elucidated. We aim to explore the protective effect of CK against ox-LDL-induced inflammatory responses and foam cells formation in vitro and explore its potential mechanisms. Through the results of oil red O staining, Western blot, and qPCR, we found that CK significantly inhibited the foam cell formation, reduced the expression of SR-A1 and increased ABCA1 and ABCG1 expression. In addition, CK increased the number of autophagosomes and upregulated the LC3II/LC3I ratio and the expressions of ATG5 and Beclin-1 but decreased p62 expression. Moreover, CK significantly inhibited the NF-κB, p38, and JNK MAPK signaling pathway. Altogether, CK attenuated macrophage inflammation and foam cell formation via autophagy induction and by modulating NF-κB, p38, and JNK MAPK signaling. Thus, CK has potential as a therapeutic drug for atherosclerosis.

New insight of red seaweed derived Callophycin A as an alternative strategy to treat drug resistance vaginal candidiasis

Marine natural products are recognised as one among the major contributors of several important biological functions. The arguments has made to utilization of natural products against different kinds of infectious diseases. In the present study, Callophycin A was successfully prepared and its anti-candidal activity was evaluated through in-vitro and in-vivo methods. The in-vitro results revealed that, Callophycin A significantly inhibits the azole resistant and sensitive C. albicans. Further, in-vivo animal experiments have shown the effective reduction in CFU of C. albicans from its beginning day of the treatment as compared to the disease control group. At the end of Callophycin A administration, there was a decrease in inflammatory response and immune molecules such as IL-6, IL-12, IL-17, IL-22, TNF-α, macrophages, CD4 and CD8 cells were observed. Whereas the animals in the disease control group expressed all the parameters with the elevated level as compared to the control group. There are no hematological abnormalities such as neutropenia, lymphocytosis and eosinophilia was observed in any animal groups except the disease control group. Finally, the evidence based prediction of anti-candidal efficacious of Callophycin A was demonstrated.

Ginsenoside Compound K: Insights into Recent Studies on Pharmacokinetics and Health-Promoting Activities

Ginseng (Panax ginseng) is an herb popular for its medicinal and health properties. Compound K (CK) is a secondary ginsenoside biotransformed from major ginsenosides. Compound K is more bioavailable and soluble than its parent ginsenosides and hence of immense importance. The review summarizes health-promoting in vitro and in vivo studies of CK between 2015 and 2020, including hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, anti-atherosclerosis, anti-diabetic, anti-cancer, neuroprotective, anti-aging/skin protective, and others. Clinical trial data are minimal and are primarily based on CK-rich fermented ginseng. Besides, numerous preclinical and clinical studies indicating the pharmacokinetic behavior of CK, its parent compound (Rb1), and processed ginseng extracts are also summarized. With the limited evidence available from animal and clinical studies, it can be stated that CK is safe and well-tolerated. However, lower water solubility, membrane permeability, and efflux significantly diminish the efficacy of CK and restrict its clinical application. We found that the use of nanocarriers and cyclodextrin for CK delivery could overcome these limitations as well as improve the health benefits associated with them. However, these derivatives have not been clinically evaluated, thus requiring a safety assessment for human therapy application. Future studies should be aimed at investigating clinical evidence of CK.

Oleanane- and Ursane-Type Triterpene Saponins from Centella asiatica Exhibit Neuroprotective Effects

Six new pentacyclic triterpenoid saponins, centelloside F (1), centelloside G (2), 11-oxo-asiaticoside B (3), 11-oxo-madecassoside (4), 11(β)-methoxy asiaticoside B (5), and 11(β)-methoxy madecassoside (6), along with seven known ones, asiaticoside (7), asiaticoside B (8), madecassoside (9), centellasaponin A (10), isoasiaticoside (11), scheffoleoside A (12), and centelloside E (13), were separated from the 80% MeOH extract of the whole plant of Centella asiatica, which has been used as a medicinal plant and is now commercially available as a diatery supplement in many countries. Compounds 1 and 2, 3 and 4, and 5 and 6 are three pairs of isomers with oleanane- or ursane-type triterpenes as aglycones. The chemical structures of the new triterpene saponins were fully characterized by extensive analysis of their nuclear magnetic resonance and high-resolution electrospray ionization mass spectrometry data. The protective effects of compounds 1-13 on PC12 cells induced by 6-OHDA were screened, and compound 3 displayed the best neuroprotective effect, with 91.75% cell viability at the concentration of 100 μM. Moreover, compound 3 also attenuated cell apoptosis and increased the mRNA expression of antioxidant enzymes, including superoxide dismutase and catalase. Additionally, compound 3 activated the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt pathway, including PDK1, Akt, and GSK-3β. These findings suggested that triterpene saponins from C. asiatica were worthy of further biological research to develop new neuroprotective agents.

The effects of ginsenosides on platelet aggregation and vascular intima in the treatment of cardiovascular diseases: From molecular mechanisms to clinical applications

Thrombosis initiated by abnormal platelet aggregation is a pivotal pathological event that precedes most cases of cardiovascular diseases (CVD). Recently, growing evidence indicates that platelet could be a potential target for CVD prevention. However, as the conventional antithrombotic management strategy, applications of current antiplatelet agents are somewhat limited by their various side effects, such as bleeding risk and drug resistance. Hence, efforts have been made to search for agents as complementary therapies. Ginsenoside, the principal active component extracted from Panax ginseng, has gained much attention for its regulations on multiple crucial events of platelet aggregation. From structural characteristics to clinical applications, this review anatomized the intrinsic structure-function relationship of antiplatelet potency of ginsenosides, and the involved signal pathways were specifically summarized. Additionally, the emphasis was placed on clinical studies that investigate the antithrombotic efficacy of ginsenosides in the treatment of CVD. Further, a broad overview of approaches for improving the bioavailability of ginsenosides was concluded. Limitations and prospects of current studies were also discussed. This study may provide some new insights into the systematic understanding of ginsenosides in CVD treatment and lay a foundation for future research.

Micelles modified with a chitosan-derived homing peptide for targeted intracellular delivery of ginsenoside compound K to liver cancer cells

Ginsenoside compound K (CK), a major metabolite of protopanaxadiol ginsenosides, exhibits significant anticancer activities against various cancer cells. However, CK has poor water solubility and low bioavailability, which have limited its application. In this study, A54 peptide was utilized to fabricate CK-loaded micelles (APD-CK) for liver targeting, using deoxycholic acid-O-carboxymethyl chitosan as the vehicle. The average particle size of APD-CK micelles was about 171.4 nm by dynamic light scattering in the hydrated state and their morphology were spherical with good dispersion. An in vitro release assay indicated pH-responsive and sustained release behavior through a mechanism of non-Fickian diffusion. Moreover, the in vitro cytotoxicity of the APD-CK micelles against HepG2 and Huh-7 cells was significantly stronger than that of CK up to 20 μg/mL. Enhanced cellular uptake of micelles in both cell types was established using confocal fluorescence scanning microscopy and flow cytometry. In addition, western blot analysis revealed that APD-CK micelles could promote the protein expression levels of caspase-3, caspase-9, and poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase. Therefore, APD-CK micelles are a potential vehicle for delivering hydrophobic drugs in liver cancer therapy, enhancing drug targeting and anticancer activity.

Chitosan And N, N, N-Trimethyl Chitosan Nanoparticle Encapsulation Of Ocimum Gratissimum Essential Oil: Optimised Synthesis, In Vitro Release And Bioactivity

Background

The encapsulation of plant essential oils (EOs) with polymeric materials (e.g. chitosan (CS) and N, N, N-trimethyl chitosan (TMC)) and the further reduction of the polymers into their nano sizes are gaining research interest in nanotechnology due to potential applications in medical drug delivery systems as well as the food and pharmaceutical industry. The present study reports a novel approach for the synthesis of Ocimum gratissimum essential oil (OGEO)-loaded CS and TMC nanoparticles with distinct bioactive and physiochemical properties.

Methods

The OGEO-loaded CS and TMC nanoparticles were characterised using various microscopic and spectroscopic techniques. The bioactive compounds in Ocimum gratissimum methanolic extract (OG-MeOH) and EOs was evinced with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Total phenolic content (TPC) of OGEO and OG-MeOH was determined using the Folin-Ciocalteu method. The in vitro drug release kinetic pattern was ascertained by membrane dialysis, while antioxidant activity was determined by the 2,2-diphenyl-1picrylhydrozyl (DPPH) free radical scavenging method. The disc diffusion method was used for antibacterial activity evaluation, while MTT and a trypan blue dye exclusion assay were used to assess cytotoxic activity on MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells.

Results

GC-MS analysis revealed components that have not been previously reported for Ocimum gratissimum. The maximum OGEO cumulative drug release percentage in vitro was observed at pH 3 for both OGEO-loaded chitosan nanoparticles (OGEO-CSNPs) and OGEO-loaded N, N, N-trimethyl chitosan nanoparticles (OGEO-TMCNPs). The antioxidant activity of OGEO-CSNPs and OGEO-TMCNPs never reached a steady state after 75 h. OGEO-TMCNPs exhibited antibacterial activity at a lower concentration for both Gram-negative and Gram-positive food pathogens. In vitro cytotoxicity revealed the increased toxicity of OGEO-TMCNPs on MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell lines.

Conclusion

OGEO-loaded CS and TMC nanoparticles were synthesised using a novel material optimisation approach. The synthesised nanoparticles have shown a promising application in the pharmaceutical and food industries.

Folic acid-modified ginsenoside Rg5-loaded bovine serum albumin nanoparticles for targeted cancer therapy in vitro and in vivo

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Ginsenoside Rg5 (Rg5), a triterpene saponin, extracted from the natural herbal plant ginseng, is one of the most potent anticancer drugs against various carcinoma cells. However, the therapeutic potential of Rg5 is limited by its low solubility in water, poor bioavailability, and nontargeted delivery. Therefore, we prepared folic acid (FA)-modified bovine serum albumin (BSA) nanoparticles (FA-Rg5-BSA NPs) to improve the therapeutic efficacy and tumor targetability of Rg5.

METHODS

Various aspects of the FA-Rg5-BSA NPs were characterized, including size, polydispersity, zeta potential, morphology, entrapment efficiency (EE), drug loading (DL), in vitro drug release, thermal stability, in vitro cytotoxicity, cell apoptosis, cellular uptake, in vivo antitumor effects and in vivo biodistribution imaging.

RESULTS

The FA-Rg5-BSA NPs showed a particle size of 201.4 nm with a polydispersity index of 0.081, uniform spherical shape, and drug loading of 12.64±4.02%. The aqueous solution of FA-Rg5-BSA NPs had favorable stability for 8 weeks at 4°C. The FA-Rg5-BSA NPs dissolved under acidic conditions. Moreover, the Rg5-BSA NPs and FA-Rg5-BSA NPs had advanced anticancer activity compared with Rg5 in MCF-7 cells, while poor cytotoxicity was observed in L929 cells. The FA-Rg5-BSA NPs facilitated cellular uptake and induced apoptosis in MCF-7 cells. In addition, in an MCF-7 xenograft mouse model, the in vivo antitumor evaluation revealed that FA-Rg5-BSA NPs were more effective in inhibiting tumor growth than Rg5 and Rg5-BSA NPs. The in vivo real-time bioimaging study showed that the FA-Rg5-BSA NPs exhibited superior tumor accumulation ability.

CONCLUSION

The results suggested that FA-Rg5-BSA NPs could serve as a promising system to improve the antitumor effect of Rg5.

Black Ginseng and Its Saponins: Preparation, Phytochemistry and Pharmacological Effects

Black ginseng is a type of processed ginseng that is prepared from white or red ginseng by steaming and drying several times. This process causes extensive changes in types and amounts of secondary metabolites. The chief secondary metabolites in ginseng are ginsenosides (dammarane-type triterpene saponins), which transform into less polar ginsenosides in black ginseng by steaming. In addition, apparent changes happen to other secondary metabolites such as the increase in the contents of phenolic compounds, reducing sugars and acidic polysaccharides in addition to the decrease in concentrations of free amino acids and total polysaccharides. Furthermore, the presence of some Maillard reaction products like maltol was also engaged. These obvious chemical changes were associated with a noticeable superiority for black ginseng over white and red ginseng in most of the comparative biological studies. This review article is an attempt to illustrate different methods of preparation of black ginseng, major chemical changes of saponins and other constituents after steaming as well as the reported biological activities of black ginseng, its major saponins and other metabolites.

Chitosan nanopolymers: An overview of drug delivery against cancer

Cancer is becoming a major reason for death troll worldwide due to the difficulty in finding an efficient, cost effective and target specific method of treatment or diagnosis. The variety of cancer therapy used in the present scenario have painful side effects, low effectiveness and high cost, which are some major drawbacks of the available therapies. Apart from the conventional cancer therapy, nanotechnology has grown extremely towards treating cancer. Nanotechnology is a promising area of science focusing on developing target specific drug delivery system for carrying small or large active molecules to diagnose and treat cancer cells. In the field of nanoscience, Chitosan nanopolymers (ChNPs) are been emerging as a potential carrier due to their biodegradability and biocompatibility. The easy modification and versatility in administration route of ChNPs has attracted attention of researchers towards loading chemicals, proteins and gene drugs for target specific therapy of cancer cells. Therefore, the present review deals with the growing concern towards cancer therapy, introduction of ChNPs, mode of action and other strategies employed by researchers till date towards cancer treatment and diagnosis ChNPs.