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Abstract
Expansins comprise an ancient group of cell wall proteins ubiquitous in land plants and their algal ancestors. During cell growth, they facilitate passive yielding of the wall's cellulose networks to turgor-generated tensile stresses, without evidence of enzymatic activity. Expansins are also implicated in fruit softening and other developmental processes and in adaptive responses to environmental stresses and pathogens. The major expansin families in plants include α-expansins (EXPAs), which act on cellulose-cellulose junctions, and β-expansins, which can act on xylans. EXPAs mediate acid growth, which contributes to wall enlargement by auxin and other growth agents. The genomes of diverse microbes, including many plant pathogens, also encode expansins designated expansin-like X. Expansins are proposed to disrupt noncovalent bonding between laterally aligned polysaccharides (notably cellulose), facilitating wall loosening for a variety of biological roles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Cosgrove
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA;
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Lou L, Jiang H, Xie J, Ge L. Corn-derived Expansin synergistically promotes enzymatic hydrolysis of corn cob. Int J Biol Macromol 2024; 281:136038. [PMID: 39332564 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.136038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2024] [Revised: 09/21/2024] [Accepted: 09/24/2024] [Indexed: 09/29/2024]
Abstract
The enzymatic hydrolysis of lignocellulose is hindered by challenges such as high enzyme usage and associated costs. It is essential to explore effective approaches to improve the efficiency of enzymatic hydrolysis while reducing costs. Expansins are non-enzymatic proteins that can interact with lignocellulose and facilitate the loosening of plant cell walls. Given their natural affinity to plant cell walls, we hypothesized that a corn Expansin could enhance the enzymatic hydrolysis of corn lignocellulose. In this study, we expressed a corn (Zea mays) Expansin, EXPA17, in yeast cells and explored the synergistic effect between EXPA17 and commercial cellulase, and found that EXPA17 exhibited a pronounced synergistic effect on the enzymatic hydrolysis of corn cobs. The addition of 0.015 mg/mL EXPA17 resulted in a 14.00 % increase in glucose yield. Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis revealed that EXPA17 proteins disrupted hydrogen bonds in the amorphous regions of corn cobs, leading to a more porous and looser structure, thereby enhancing cellulose accessibility. Our work leveraged the synergistic effect between Expansin and lignocellulose from the same source of corn, providing a novel strategy to improve the efficiency of enzymatic hydrolysis of corn lignocellulose while potentially reducing the associated costs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Lou
- Institute of Biomass Engineering, Key Laboratory of Energy Plants Resource and Utilization, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, PR China
| | - Huabin Jiang
- Institute of Biomass Engineering, Key Laboratory of Energy Plants Resource and Utilization, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, PR China
| | - Jun Xie
- Institute of Biomass Engineering, Key Laboratory of Energy Plants Resource and Utilization, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, PR China.
| | - Liangfa Ge
- Institute of Biomass Engineering, Key Laboratory of Energy Plants Resource and Utilization, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, PR China; College of Agriculture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, PR China.
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Wei J, Shao Y, Qiao S, Li A, Hou S, Zhang WB. Biomacromolecular Characterizations Using State-of-the-Art Quartz Crystal Microbalance with Dissipation. Anal Chem 2023; 95:16435-16446. [PMID: 37921449 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.3c02499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2023]
Abstract
Biomolecular characterization is essential in fields such as drug discovery, glycomics, and cell biology. This feature article focuses on the experimental use of quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation (QCM-D) as a powerful analytical technique to probe biological events ranging from biomacromolecular interactions and conformational changes of biomacromolecules to surface immobilization of biomacromolecules and cell morphological changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingjing Wei
- College of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Anyang Institute of Technology, Anyang, Henan 455000, China
| | - Yu Shao
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Key Laboratory of Polymer Chemistry & Physics of Ministry of Education, Center for Soft Matter Science and Engineering, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, P. R. China
| | - Shixin Qiao
- College of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Anyang Institute of Technology, Anyang, Henan 455000, China
| | - Aaron Li
- China Biolin Scientific AB, Shanghai 201203, P. R. China
| | - Shaogang Hou
- College of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Anyang Institute of Technology, Anyang, Henan 455000, China
| | - Wen-Bin Zhang
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Key Laboratory of Polymer Chemistry & Physics of Ministry of Education, Center for Soft Matter Science and Engineering, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, P. R. China
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Samalova M, Gahurova E, Hejatko J. Expansin-mediated developmental and adaptive responses: A matter of cell wall biomechanics? QUANTITATIVE PLANT BIOLOGY 2022; 3:e11. [PMID: 37077967 PMCID: PMC10095946 DOI: 10.1017/qpb.2022.6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Revised: 03/16/2022] [Accepted: 03/29/2022] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Biomechanical properties of the cell wall (CW) are important for many developmental and adaptive responses in plants. Expansins were shown to mediate pH-dependent CW enlargement via a process called CW loosening. Here, we provide a brief overview of expansin occurrence in plant and non-plant species, their structure and mode of action including the role of hormone-regulated CW acidification in the control of expansin activity. We depict the historical as well as recent CW models, discuss the role of expansins in the CW biomechanics and address the developmental importance of expansin-regulated CW loosening in cell elongation and new primordia formation. We summarise the data published so far on the role of expansins in the abiotic stress response as well as the rather scarce evidence and hypotheses on the possible mechanisms underlying expansin-mediated abiotic stress resistance. Finally, we wrap it up by highlighting possible future directions in expansin research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marketa Samalova
- CEITEC - Central European Institute of Technology, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
- Department of Experimental Biology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Evelina Gahurova
- CEITEC - Central European Institute of Technology, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
- National Centre for Biotechnological Research, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Hejatko
- CEITEC - Central European Institute of Technology, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
- National Centre for Biotechnological Research, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
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Zhan N, Shang X, Wang Z, Xie Y, Liu G, Wu Z. Screening cellulose synthesis related genes of EgrEXP and EgrHEX in Eucalyptus grandis. Gene 2022; 824:146396. [PMID: 35278632 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2022.146396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2021] [Revised: 01/19/2022] [Accepted: 03/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Eucalyptus (including Eucalyptus grandis) is an excellent wood forest tree species that provides a large number of plant fiber raw materials for the paper and timber industries. Cellulose, an essential structural component in plant cell walls, is a renewable biomass resource that plays a very important role in nature. There is still a lack of research on the role of gene regulation in cellulose synthesis. To study the genes of cellulose synthesis, the wood chemical indexes of Eucalyptus grandis were analyzed by taking three different parts from the main stem of Eucalyptus grandis as raw materials. The results showed that the cellulose content in the middle of the trunk was significantly higher than that at the chest diameter and at the upper part of the trunk. A total of 296 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were obtained from the three site by transcriptome, and 19 key candidate genes were related to the synthesis of cellulose in Eucalyptus grandis. EgrEXP1 and EgrHEX4 were overexpressed in 84 K poplar, the content of cellulose and lignin in genetically modified plants was significantly higher than that of wild type 84 K poplar. Also, the average plant height and average root count were significantly higher than those of control plants, and the average diameter of the middle and stem bases were significantly larger than those of control plants. In this study, the genes related to cellulose synthesis in Eucalyptus grandis are studied, which serve as a strong foundation for understanding the molecular regulation of cellulose synthesis in plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ni Zhan
- China Eucalypt Research Centre, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Zhanjiang 524022, Guangdong, China; Institute of Fruit Tree Research, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, Guangdong, China
| | - Xiuhua Shang
- China Eucalypt Research Centre, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Zhanjiang 524022, Guangdong, China
| | - Zhen Wang
- Guangdong Lingnan Institute Survey and Design Co., LTD, Guangzhou 510000, Guangdong, China
| | - Yaojian Xie
- China Eucalypt Research Centre, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Zhanjiang 524022, Guangdong, China
| | - Guo Liu
- China Eucalypt Research Centre, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Zhanjiang 524022, Guangdong, China
| | - Zhihua Wu
- China Eucalypt Research Centre, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Zhanjiang 524022, Guangdong, China.
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Guan X, Mao Y, Stiller JW, Shu S, Pang Y, Qu W, Zhang Z, Tang F, Qian H, Chen R, Sun B, Guoying D, Mo Z, Kong F, Tang X, Wang D. Comparative Gene Expression and Physiological Analyses Reveal Molecular Mechanisms in Wound-Induced Spore Formation in the Edible Seaweed Nori. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 13:840439. [PMID: 35371140 PMCID: PMC8969420 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.840439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2021] [Accepted: 02/24/2022] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Genetic reprogramming of differentiated cells is studied broadly in multicellular Viridiplantae as an adaptation to herbivory or damage; however, mechanisms underlying cell development and redifferentiation are largely unknown in red algae, their nearest multicellular relatives. Here we investgate cell reprogramming in the widely cultivated, edible seaweed Neopyropia yezoesis ("nori"), where vegetative cells in wounded blades differentiate and release as large numbers of asexual spores. Based upon physiological changes and transcriptomic dynamics after wound stress in N. yezoensis and its congener Neoporphyra haitanensis, another cultivar that does not differentiate spores after wounding, we propose a three-phase model of wound-induced spore development in N. yezoensis. In Phase I, propagation of ROS by RBOH and SOD elicites systematic transduction of the wound signal, while Ca2+ dependent signaling induces cell reprogramming. In Phase II, a TOR signaling pathway and regulation of cyclin and CDK genes result in cell divisions that spread inward from the wound edge. Once sporangia form, Phase III involves expression of proteins required for spore maturation and cell wall softening. Our analyses not only provide the first model for core molecular processes controlling cellular reprogramming in rhodophytes, but also have practical implications for achieving greater control over seeding in commercial nori farming.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaowei Guan
- Key Laboratory of Marine Genetics and Breeding (OUC), Ministry of Education, Qingdao, China
- College of Marine Life Sciences, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China
| | - Yunxiang Mao
- Key Laboratory of Marine Genetics and Breeding (OUC), Ministry of Education, Qingdao, China
- Key Laboratory of Utilization and Conservation for Tropical Marine Bioresources (Hainan Tropical Ocean University), Ministry of Education, Sanya, China
| | - John W. Stiller
- Department of Biology, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC, United States
| | - Shanshan Shu
- Key Laboratory of Marine Genetics and Breeding (OUC), Ministry of Education, Qingdao, China
- College of Marine Life Sciences, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China
| | - Ying Pang
- Key Laboratory of Marine Genetics and Breeding (OUC), Ministry of Education, Qingdao, China
- College of Marine Life Sciences, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China
| | - Weihua Qu
- Key Laboratory of Marine Genetics and Breeding (OUC), Ministry of Education, Qingdao, China
- College of Marine Life Sciences, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China
| | - Zehao Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Marine Genetics and Breeding (OUC), Ministry of Education, Qingdao, China
- College of Marine Life Sciences, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China
| | - Fugeng Tang
- Key Laboratory of Marine Genetics and Breeding (OUC), Ministry of Education, Qingdao, China
- College of Marine Life Sciences, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China
| | - Huijuan Qian
- Key Laboratory of Marine Genetics and Breeding (OUC), Ministry of Education, Qingdao, China
- College of Marine Life Sciences, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China
| | - Rui Chen
- Key Laboratory of Marine Genetics and Breeding (OUC), Ministry of Education, Qingdao, China
- College of Marine Life Sciences, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China
| | - Bin Sun
- Key Laboratory of Marine Genetics and Breeding (OUC), Ministry of Education, Qingdao, China
- College of Marine Life Sciences, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China
| | - Du Guoying
- Key Laboratory of Marine Genetics and Breeding (OUC), Ministry of Education, Qingdao, China
- College of Marine Life Sciences, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China
| | - Zhaolan Mo
- Key Laboratory of Marine Genetics and Breeding (OUC), Ministry of Education, Qingdao, China
- College of Marine Life Sciences, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China
| | - Fanna Kong
- Key Laboratory of Marine Genetics and Breeding (OUC), Ministry of Education, Qingdao, China
- College of Marine Life Sciences, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China
| | - Xianghai Tang
- Key Laboratory of Marine Genetics and Breeding (OUC), Ministry of Education, Qingdao, China
- College of Marine Life Sciences, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China
| | - Dongmei Wang
- Key Laboratory of Marine Genetics and Breeding (OUC), Ministry of Education, Qingdao, China
- College of Marine Life Sciences, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China
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Wang D, Seymour GB. Molecular and biochemical basis of softening in tomato. MOLECULAR HORTICULTURE 2022; 2:5. [PMID: 37789493 PMCID: PMC10515243 DOI: 10.1186/s43897-022-00026-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2021] [Accepted: 01/20/2022] [Indexed: 10/05/2023]
Abstract
We review the latest information related to the control of fruit softening in tomato and where relevant compare the events with texture changes in other fleshy fruits. Development of an acceptable texture is essential for consumer acceptance, but also determines the postharvest life of fruits. The complex modern supply chain demands effective control of shelf life in tomato without compromising colour and flavour.The control of softening and ripening in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) are discussed with respect to hormonal cues, epigenetic regulation and transcriptional modulation of cell wall structure-related genes. In the last section we focus on the biochemical changes closely linked with softening in tomato including key aspects of cell wall disassembly. Some important elements of the softening process have been identified, but our understanding of the mechanistic basis of the process in tomato and other fruits remains incomplete, especially the precise relationship between changes in cell wall structure and alterations in fruit texture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Duoduo Wang
- College of Chemistry and Life Sciences, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, Zhejiang, 321004, China
- School of Life Sciences, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, 212013, China
| | - Graham B Seymour
- Divison of Plant and Crop Sciences, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, Loughborough, Leics, LE12 5RD, UK.
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Defining the Frontiers of Synergism between Cellulolytic Enzymes for Improved Hydrolysis of Lignocellulosic Feedstocks. Catalysts 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/catal11111343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Lignocellulose has economic potential as a bio-resource for the production of value-added products (VAPs) and biofuels. The commercialization of biofuels and VAPs requires efficient enzyme cocktail activities that can lower their costs. However, the basis of the synergism between enzymes that compose cellulolytic enzyme cocktails for depolymerizing lignocellulose is not understood. This review aims to address the degree of synergism (DS) thresholds between the cellulolytic enzymes and how this can be used in the formulation of effective cellulolytic enzyme cocktails. DS is a powerful tool that distinguishes between enzymes’ synergism and anti-synergism during the hydrolysis of biomass. It has been established that cellulases, or cellulases and lytic polysaccharide monooxygenases (LPMOs), always synergize during cellulose hydrolysis. However, recent evidence suggests that this is not always the case, as synergism depends on the specific mechanism of action of each enzyme in the combination. Additionally, expansins, nonenzymatic proteins responsible for loosening cell wall fibers, seem to also synergize with cellulases during biomass depolymerization. This review highlighted the following four key factors linked to DS: (1) a DS threshold at which the enzymes synergize and produce a higher product yield than their theoretical sum, (2) a DS threshold at which the enzymes display synergism, but not a higher product yield, (3) a DS threshold at which enzymes do not synergize, and (4) a DS threshold that displays anti-synergy. This review deconvolutes the DS concept for cellulolytic enzymes, to postulate an experimental design approach for achieving higher synergism and cellulose conversion yields.
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Zhang P, Cui M, Huang R, Qi W, Thielemans W, He Z, Su R. Enhanced enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose by endoglucanase via expansin pretreatment and the addition of zinc ions. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2021; 333:125139. [PMID: 33882384 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2021.125139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2021] [Revised: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 04/02/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
One of the major limitations of lignocellulose conversion is the relatively low efficiency of cellulases. Expansins can act as an accessory protein to loosen the rigid cellulose structure and promote cellulose hydrolysis. However, the synergistic action of expansin is not well understood. In this study, we employed quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation to real-time monitor the adsorption of Bacillus subtilis expansin (BsEXLX1) and endoglucanase I (Cel7B) and the hydrolysis of cellulose. The effects of pH, temperature, and zinc ions on the initial adsorption rate and adsorption capacity of BsEXLX1 were examined. When 36.5 mM of zinc ions was added, the irreversible adsorption ratio of BsEXLX1 further increased to 4.63 times the value in the absence of zinc ions, whereas the initial adsorption rate and the hydrolysis rate constants of Cel7B could reach 2.16 times and 2.05 times the values in the absence of zinc ions, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peiqian Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Engineering, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Membrane Science and Desalination Technology, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, PR China; Sustainable Materials Lab, Department of Chemical Engineering, KU Leuven, campus Kulak Kortrijk, Etienne Sabbelaan 53, 8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Mei Cui
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Engineering, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Membrane Science and Desalination Technology, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, PR China
| | - Renliang Huang
- School of Marine Science and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, PR China
| | - Wei Qi
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Engineering, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Membrane Science and Desalination Technology, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, PR China; Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), Tianjin 300072, PR China
| | - Wim Thielemans
- Sustainable Materials Lab, Department of Chemical Engineering, KU Leuven, campus Kulak Kortrijk, Etienne Sabbelaan 53, 8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Zhimin He
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Engineering, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Membrane Science and Desalination Technology, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, PR China
| | - Rongxin Su
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Engineering, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Membrane Science and Desalination Technology, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, PR China; School of Marine Science and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, PR China; Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), Tianjin 300072, PR China.
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Sampl C, Eyley S, Thielemans W, Hirn U, Spirk S. Real-time adsorption of optical brightening agents on cellulose thin films. Carbohydr Polym 2021; 261:117826. [PMID: 33766333 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2021.117826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2020] [Revised: 02/12/2021] [Accepted: 02/13/2021] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Optical brightening agents (OBAs) are commonly used in textile and paper industry to adjust product brightness and color appearence. Continuous production processes lead to short residence time of the dyes in the fiber suspension, making it necessary to understand the kinetics of adsorption. The interaction mechanisms of OBAs with cellulose are challenging to establish as the fibrous nature of cellulosic substrates complicates acquisition of real-time data. Here, we explore the real-time adsorption of different OBAs (di, tetra- and hexasulfonated compounds) onto different cellulose surfaces using surface plasmon resonance spectroscopy. Ionic strength, surface topography and polarity were varied and yielded 0.76-11.35 mg m-2 OBA on cellulose. We identified four independent mechanisms governing OBA-cellulose interactions. These involve the polarity of the cellulose surface, the solubility of the OBA, the ionic strength during adsorption and presence of bivalent cations such as Ca2+. These results can be exploited for process optimization in related industries as they allow for a simple adjustment and experimental testing procedures including performance assessment of novel OBAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carina Sampl
- Graz University of Technology, Institute of Bioproducts and Paper Technology (BPTI), Inffeldgasse 23, 8010 Graz, Austria; CD-Laboratory for Fibre Swelling and Paper Performance, Inffeldgasse 23, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Samuel Eyley
- Sustainable Materials Lab, Department of Chemical Engineering, KU Leuven, Campus Kulak Kortrijk, Etienne Sabbelaan 53, 8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Wim Thielemans
- Sustainable Materials Lab, Department of Chemical Engineering, KU Leuven, Campus Kulak Kortrijk, Etienne Sabbelaan 53, 8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Ulrich Hirn
- Graz University of Technology, Institute of Bioproducts and Paper Technology (BPTI), Inffeldgasse 23, 8010 Graz, Austria; CD-Laboratory for Fibre Swelling and Paper Performance, Inffeldgasse 23, 8010 Graz, Austria.
| | - Stefan Spirk
- Graz University of Technology, Institute of Bioproducts and Paper Technology (BPTI), Inffeldgasse 23, 8010 Graz, Austria; CD-Laboratory for Fibre Swelling and Paper Performance, Inffeldgasse 23, 8010 Graz, Austria
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