Stepwise responsive carboxymethyl chitosan-based nanoplatform for effective drug-resistant breast cancer suppression

Chitosan-based nanoarchitectures for siRNA delivery in cancer therapy: A review of pre-clinical and clinical importance

The gene therapy has been developed into a new cancer treatment option. Now that we know which molecular components contribute to carcinogenesis, we may use gene therapy to target particular signalling pathways in cancer treatment. Problems with gene therapy include genetic tool degradation in blood, off-targeting features, and inadequate tumor site accumulation; new delivery mechanisms are needed to address these issues. A polysaccharide made from chitin, chitosan has found extensive use in the creation of nanoparticles. The delivery of genes in the treatment of illnesses, particularly cancer, has made use of nanostructures modified with chitosan. Topics covered in this review center on cancer treatment using chitosan-based polymers for siRNA delivery. This study aims to assess the potential of chitosan nanoparticles for the simultaneous administration of siRNA and anti-cancer medications. In cancer treatment, these nanoparticles can transport phytochemicals or chemotherapeutics together with siRNA. In addition, chitosan nanoparticles loaded with siRNA can inhibit the growth and spread of human malignancies by delivering siRNA that targets particular genes. Chitosan nanoparticles loaded with siRNA can heighten the responsiveness of cancer cells. Future therapeutic applications of chitosan nanoparticles may open the path for cancer treatment, thanks to their biocompatibility and biosafety.

Harnessing ROS Amplification and GSH Depletion Using a Carrier-Free Nanodrug to Enhance Ferroptosis-Based Cancer Therapy

Ferroptosis, a non-apoptotic form of cell death characterized by the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and massive accumulation of lipid peroxidation (LPO), shows significant promise in cancer therapy. However, the overexpression of glutathione (GSH) at the tumor site and insufficient ROS often result in unsatisfactory therapeutic efficacy. A multistage, GSH-consuming, and ROS-providing carrier-free nanodrug capable of efficiently loading copper ions (Cu2+), sorafenib (SRF), and chlorogenic acid (CGA) (Cu2+-CGA-SRF, CCS-NDs) is developed to mediate enhanced ferroptosis therapy. Through a reductive intracellular environment, Cu2+ in the CCS-NDs reacted with intracellular GSH, alleviating the antioxidant capacity of tumor tissues and triggering the release of drugs. Meanwhile, the released SRF inhibited system xc-, thereby blocking cystine uptake and reducing GSH synthesis in tumor cells. By depleting stored GSH and inhibiting its synthesis, CCS-NDs achieved efficient GSH depletion and increased accumulation of toxic LPO. More importantly, the high concentration of CGA in the CCS-NDs induced ROS generation, further promoting ferroptosis. Both in vitro and in vivo results demonstrated that CCS-NDs effectively triggered ferroptosis in tumor cells by inactivating glutathione peroxidase 4 and inducing LPO. Overall, the carrier-free nanodrug CCS-NDs offer a promising strategy for regulating GSH and LPO levels in ferroptosis-based cancer therapy.

Synergistic Target-Attacking Tumor Cells and M2 Macrophages via a Triple-Responsive Nanoassembly for Complete Metastasis Blocking

Collaboration of cancerous cells and microenvironment is the root for tumor spreading, leading to difficulty in complete metastasis blockage via mono-intervention. Herein, a triple-responsive nanoassembly is designed for orienting tumor cells and migration-driving M2 tumor associated macrophages (TAMs) in microenvironment for efficient anti-metastatic therapy. Structurally, a reactive oxygen species (ROS)-responsive crosslinked short-chain polyquaternium is synthesized to bridge graphene oxide (GO) scaffold with apolipoprotein A-I crown via borate-crosslinking, electrostatic adherence, and coordinative coupling. The protein-crowning polymeric GO nanoparticles could give multimodal shielding and triple-responsive release of doxorubicin and Snail-targeted siRNA. Tailor-made apolipoprotein A-I crown fulfills nanoparticles synergistically attacking tumor cells and M2 TAMs via binding with overexpressed scavenger receptors. The findings witness the targeted accumulation and potent cytotoxicity of the hybrid nanoparticles for M2 TAMs and tumor cells; especially, elimination of M2 TAMs in tumor microenvironment holds back Snail-enhancing transforming growth factor (TGF)-β signal pathway, which collaborates with Snail silencing in tumor cells to reverse epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT) and metastasis-promoting niche. Collectively, the synergistic targeting therapeutic platform could provide a promising solution for metastatic tumor treatment.

Recent developments in the biomedical and anticancer applications of chitosan derivatives

Chitosan is a natural polymer derived from chitin. It has significant applications in various fields due to its unique physicochemical properties, biocompatibility, and biodegradability. These important properties of chitosan make it an attractive candidate for various anti-cancer activities and biomedical applications, including tissue engineering. This review emphasizes the latest literature on anticancer applications of chitosan derivatives and in-depth study of biomedical applications. This review highlights the importance of biomedical applications and anti-cancer activities like breast, liver, colon, gastric, melanoma, colorectal, cervical, oral, and lymphoma cancer. Currently, there is a notable absence of recent reviews that comprehensively address these aspects such as Alejandro Elizalde-Cárdenas, et al. 2024, focuses only on Biomedical applications of Cs and its derivatives (Elizalde-Cárdenas et al., 2024). Jingxian Ding, et al. 2022 discussed the applications of Cs in some Cancer treatments (Mabrouk et al., 2024). However, our article aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the latest advancements in Cs derivatives in both fields. This manuscript is designed with proper diagrams, flow sheets and summarized tables to enhance the understanding of the reader. It also highlights recent advancements in the development of various chitosan derivatives, offering a comprehensive perspective for researchers and practitioners to further progress in biomedical and anticancer technologies.

Chitosan-based smart stimuli-responsive nanoparticles for gene delivery and gene therapy: Recent progresses on cancer therapy

Recent cancer therapy research has found that chitosan (Ch)-based nanoparticles show great potential for targeted gene delivery. Chitosan, a biocompatible and biodegradable polymer, has exceptional properties, making it an ideal carrier for therapeutic genes. These nanoparticles can respond to specific stimuli like pH, temperature, and enzymes, enabling precise delivery and regulated release of genes. In cancer therapy, these nanoparticles have proven effective in delivering genes to tumor cells, slowing tumor growth. Adjusting the nanoparticle's surface, encapsulating protective agents, and using targeting ligands have also improved gene delivery efficiency. Smart nanoparticles based on chitosan have shown promise in improving outcomes by selectively releasing genes in response to tumor conditions, enhancing targeted delivery, and reducing off-target effects. Additionally, targeting ligands on the nanoparticles' surface increases uptake and effectiveness. Although further investigation is needed to optimize the structure and composition of these nanoparticles and assess their long-term safety, these advancements pave the way for innovative gene-focused cancer therapies.

Biopolymer-Based Nanomedicine for Cancer Therapy: Opportunities and Challenges

Cancer, as the foremost challenge among human diseases, has plagued medical professionals for many years. While there have been numerous treatment approaches in clinical practice, they often cause additional harm to patients. The emergence of nanotechnology has brought new directions for cancer treatment, which can deliver anticancer drugs specifically to tumor areas. This article first introduces the application scenarios of nanotherapies and treatment strategies of nanomedicine. Then, the noteworthy characteristics exhibited by biopolymer materials were described, which make biopolymers stand out in polymeric nanomedicine delivery. Next, we focus on summarizing the state-of-art studies of five categories of proteins (Albumin, Gelatin, Silk fibroin, Zein, Ferritin), nine varieties of polysaccharides (Chitosan, Starch, Hyaluronic acid, Dextran, cellulose, Fucoidan, Carrageenan, Lignin, Pectin) and liposomes in the field of anticancer drug delivery. Finally, we also provide a summary of the advantages and limitations of these biopolymers, discuss the prevailing impediments to their application, and discuss in detail the prospective research directions. This review not only helps readers understand the current development status of nano anticancer drug delivery systems based on biopolymers, but also is helpful for readers to understand the properties of various biopolymers and find suitable solutions in this field through comparative reading.

Gene Therapy with Chitosan Nanoparticles: Modern Formulation Strategies for Enhancing Cancer Cell Transfection

Gene therapy involves the introduction of exogenous genetic material into host tissues to modify gene expression or cellular properties for therapeutic purposes. Initially developed to address genetic disorders, gene therapy has expanded to encompass a wide range of conditions, notably cancer. Effective delivery of nucleic acids into target cells relies on carriers, with non-viral systems gaining prominence due to their enhanced safety profile compared to viral vectors. Chitosan, a biopolymer, is frequently utilized to fabricate nanoparticles for various biomedical applications, particularly nucleic acid delivery, with recent emphasis on targeting cancer cells. Chitosan's positively charged amino groups enable the formation of stable nanocomplexes with nucleic acids and facilitate interaction with cell membranes, thereby promoting cellular uptake. Despite these advantages, chitosan-based nanoparticles face challenges such as poor solubility at physiological pH, non-specificity for cancer cells, and inefficient endosomal escape, limiting their transfection efficiency. To address these limitations, researchers have focused on enhancing the functionality of chitosan nanoparticles. Strategies include improving stability, enhancing targeting specificity, increasing cellular uptake efficiency, and promoting endosomal escape. This review critically evaluates recent formulation approaches within these categories, aiming to provide insights into advancing chitosan-based gene delivery systems for improved efficacy, particularly in cancer therapy.

Hyaluronic acid/dextran-based polymeric micelles co-delivering ursolic acid and doxorubicin to mitochondria for potentiating chemotherapy in MDR cancer

Cancer multidrug resistance (MDR) dramatically hindered the efficiency of standard chemotherapy. Mitochondria are highly involved in the occurrence and development of MDR; thus, inducing its malfunction will be an appealing strategy to treat MDR tumors. In this paper, a natural polysaccharides-based nanoplatform (TDTD@UA/HA micelles) with cell and mitochondria dual-targeting ability was facilely fabricated to co-deliver ursolic acid (UA) and doxorubicin (DOX) for combinatorial MDR therapy. TDTD@UA/HA micelles featured a spherical morphology, narrow size distribution (∼140 nm), as well as favorable drug co-loading capacity (DOX: 8.41 %, UA: 9.06 %). After hyaluronic acid (HA)-mediated endocytosis, the lysosomal hyaluronidase promoted the degradation of HA layer and then the positive triphenylphosphine groups were exposed, which significantly enhanced the mitochondria-accumulation of nano micelles. Subsequently, DOX and UA were specifically released into mitochondria under the trigger of endogenous reactive oxygen species (ROS), followed by severe mitochondrial destruction through generating ROS, exhausting mitochondrial membrane potential, and blocking energy supply, etc.; ultimately contributing to the susceptibility restoration of MCF-7/ADR cells to chemotherapeutic agents. Importantly, TDTD@UA/HA micelles performed potent anticancer efficacy without distinct toxicity on the MDR tumor-bearing nude mice model. Overall, the versatile nanomedicine represented a new therapeutic paradigm and held great promise in overcoming MDR-related cancer.

A review of chitosan in gene therapy: Developments and challenges

Gene therapy, as a revolutionary treatment, has been gaining more and more attention. The key to gene therapy is the selection of suitable vectors for protection of exogenous nucleic acid molecules and enabling their specific release in target cells. While viral vectors have been widely used in researches, non-viral vectors are receiving more attention due to its advantages. Chitosan (CS) has been widely used as non-viral organic gene carrier because of its good biocompatibility and its ability to load large amounts of nucleic acids. This paper summarizes and evaluates the potential of chitosan and its derivatives as gene delivery vector materials, along with factors influencing transfection efficiency, performance evaluation, ways to optimize infectious efficiency, and the current main research development directions. Additionally, it provides an outlook on its future prospects.

Chitosan-functionalized bioplatforms and hydrogels in breast cancer: immunotherapy, phototherapy and clinical perspectives

Breast cancer is the most common and malignant tumor among women. Chitosan (CS)-based nanoparticles have been introduced into breast cancer therapy as a way to increase the targeted delivery of drugs and genes to the tumor site. CS nanostructures suppress tumorigenesis by enhancing both the targeted delivery of cargo (drug and gene) and its accumulation in tumor cells. The tumor cells internalize CS-based nanoparticles through endocytosis. Moreover, chitosan nanocarriers can also induce phototherapy-mediated tumor ablation. Smart and multifunctional types of CS nanoparticles, including pH-, light- and redox-responsive nanoparticles, can be used to improve the potential for breast cancer removal. In addition, the acceleration of immunotherapy by CS nanoparticles has also been achieved, and there is potential to develop CS-nanoparticle hydrogels that can be used to suppress tumorigenesis.

Formulation of DOX-dimer with bi-functionalized chitooligosaccharide for tumor-specific self-boosted drug release and synergistic chemo/chemodynamic therapy

The toxic side effects and possible drug resistance of the chemotherapeutics hinder their antitumor efficacy. Here, a pH/reactive oxygen species (ROS) dual-triggered nanodrug was developed for the tumor-specific self-boosted drug release and synergistic chemo/chemodynamic therapy, by formulating ROS-cleavable doxorubicin (DOX)-based dimer (DOX-TK-DOX) with bi-functionalized chitooligosaccharide (COS-Fc-TK) with ferrocenecarboxylic acid (Fc) and thioketal (TK). The resultant DOX-TK-DOX/COS-Fc-TK nanoparticles with a high DOX content of 39.70 % showed tumor-specific self-boosted drug release, which was triggered by highly toxic OH generated via Fc-catalyzed Fenton reaction of the endogenous H2O2 in tumor intracellular microenvironment. As a result, a synergistic chemo/chemodynamic therapy with combination index (CI) of 0.94 was achieved for selective treatment of tumors.

Advances in aptamer-mediated targeted delivery system for cancer treatment

Aptamers with high affinity and specificity for certain targets have rapidly become a novel class of targeted ligands applicated in drug delivery. Based on the excellent characteristics of aptamers, different aptamer-mediated drug delivery systems have been developed, including aptamer-drug conjugate (ApDC), aptamer-siRNA, and aptamer-functionalized nanoparticle systems for the effective treatment of cancer, which can reduce potential toxicity and improve therapeutic efficacy. In this review, we summarize the recent progress of aptamer-mediated delivery systems in cancer therapy, and discuss the application prospects and existing problems of innovative approaches based on aptamer therapy. Overall, this review aims to better understand the current aptamer-based targeted delivery applications through in-depth analysis to improve efficacy and develop new therapeutic methods which can ultimately improve treatment outcomes for cancer patients.

Biomimetic gene editing system for precise tumor cell reprogramming and augmented tumor therapy

The abnormal level of hypoxia-inducible factor-1 alpha (HIF-1α) is closely related to cancer metastasis and treatment resistance. CRISPR-Cas9-based gene editing technology has sparked profound hope to solve this issue by precise gene disruption, although the in vivo application remains hindered by the lack of a safe and efficient delivery strategy. Herein, we developed a cell membrane biomimetic core-shell system for light-controllable, precise gene editing. The inner core of the system comprises protamine for CRISPR-Cas9/sgRNA plasmid (pCas9) loading and calcium ions for efficient pCas9 transfection. The shell of the system is camouflaged by a cell membrane and modified with AS1411 aptamers for tumor targeting and photosensitizers to induce lysosomal escape and pCas9 release through reactive oxygen species production, thereby producing light-controllable enhanced gene editing. Neoplastic H1299 cells were reprogrammed using the biomimetic gene editing system upon laser irradiation with reduced VEGF and Vimentin expression, leading to enhanced antimetastatic effects. Genetic disruption of HIF-1α augmented the in vivo chemotherapeutic efficacy of paclitaxel. Our approach of using a membrane-camouflaged system combined with light augmentation provides a potential solution for the in vivo delivery of CRISPR-Cas9 as well as a feasible strategy for cancer therapy.

Nanocarriers overcoming biological barriers induced by multidrug resistance of chemotherapeutics in 2D and 3D cancer models

Multidrug resistance (MDR) is currently a big challenge in cancer therapy and limits its success in several patients. Tumors use the MDR mechanisms to colonize the host and reduce the efficacy of chemotherapeutics that are injected as single agents or combinations. MDR mechanisms are responsible for inactivation of drugs and formbiological barriers in cancer like the drug efflux pumps, aberrant extracellular matrix, hypoxic areas, altered cell death mechanisms, etc. Nanocarriers have some potential to overcome these barriers and improve the efficacy of chemotherapeutics. In fact, they are versatile and can deliver natural and synthetic biomolecules, as well as RNAi/DNAi, thus providing a controlled release of drugs and a synergistic effect in tumor tissues. Biocompatible and safe multifunctional biopolymers, with or without specific targeting molecules, modify the surface and interface properties of nanocarriers. These modifications affect the interaction of nanocarriers with cellular models as well as the selection of suitable models for in vitro experiments. MDR cancer cells, and particularly their 2D and 3D models, in combination with anatomical and physiological structures of tumor tissues, can boost the design and preparation of nanomedicines for anticancer therapy. 2D and 3D cancer cell cultures are suitable models to study the interaction, internalization, and efficacy of nanocarriers, the mechanisms of MDR in cancer cells and tissues, and they are used to tailor a personalized medicine and improve the efficacy of anticancer treatment in patients. The description of molecular mechanisms and physio-pathological pathways of these models further allow the design of nanomedicine that can efficiently overcome biological barriers involved in MDR and test the activity of nanocarriers in 2D and 3D models of MDR cancer cells.

Chitosan-Based Nanoparticles with Optimized Parameters for Targeted Delivery of a Specific Anticancer Drug-A Comprehensive Review

Chitosan is a positively charged polysaccharide obtained through chitin deacetylation. It belongs to a group of biodegradable, bioavailable, and non-toxic materials of natural origin; thus, it is a promising matrix for creating delivery systems of different active agents. Recently, much attention has been paid to nanodelivery systems as carriers to enable better bioavailability, and thus higher efficiency of the loaded drug. The present review is focused on the progress in chitosan-based nanoparticles for the targeted delivery of antitumor drugs. The paper discusses literature reports from the last three years in which chitosan nanoparticles were applied as carriers for active substances used in antitumor therapy and potential new drugs with anticancer properties. Special attention was paid to the different treatments applied to increase the therapeutic effectiveness and minimize the side effects of a specific active substance.

Mediation of synergistic chemotherapy and gene therapy via nanoparticles based on chitosan and ionic polysaccharides

Nanoparticles (NPs)-based on various ionic polysaccharides, including chitosan, hyaluronic acid, and alginate have been frequently summarized for controlled release applications, however, most of the published reviews, to our knowledge, focused on the delivery of a single therapeutic agent. A comprehensive summarization of the co-delivery of multiple therapeutic agents by the ionic polysaccharides-based NPs, especially on the optimization of the polysaccharide structure for overcoming various extracellular and intracellular barriers toward maximized synergistic effects, to our knowledge, has been rarely explored so far. For this purpose, the strategies used for overcoming various extracellular and intracellular barriers in vivo were introduced first to provide guidance for the rational design of ionic polysaccharides-based NPs with desired features, including long-term circulation, enhanced cellular internalization, controllable drug/gene release, endosomal escape and improved nucleus localization. Next, four preparation strategies were summarized including three physical methods of polyelectrolyte complexation, ionic crosslinking, and self-assembly and a chemical conjugation approach. The challenges and future trends of this rapidly developing field were finally discussed in the concluding remarks. The important guidelines on the rational design of ionic polysaccharides-based NPs for maximized synergistic efficiency drawn in this review will promote the future generation and clinical translation of polysaccharides-based NPs for cancer therapy.

Broadening the Horizons of RNA Delivery Strategies in Cancer Therapy

RNA-based therapy is a promising and innovative strategy for cancer treatment. However, poor stability, immunogenicity, low cellular uptake rate, and difficulty in endosomal escape are considered the major obstacles in the cancer therapy process, severely limiting the development of clinical translation and application. For efficient and safe transport of RNA into cancer cells, it usually needs to be packaged in appropriate carriers so that it can be taken up by the target cells and then be released to the specific location to perform its function. In this review, we will focus on up-to-date insights of the RNA-based delivery carrier and comprehensively describe its application in cancer therapy. We briefly discuss delivery obstacles in RNA-mediated cancer therapy and summarize the advantages and disadvantages of different carriers (cationic polymers, inorganic nanoparticles, lipids, etc.). In addition, we further summarize and discuss the current RNA therapeutic strategies approved for clinical use. A comprehensive overview of various carriers and emerging delivery strategies for RNA delivery, as well as the current status of clinical applications and practice of RNA medicines are classified and integrated to inspire fresh ideas and breakthroughs.