Hyaluronic acid-modified yeast β-glucan particles delivering doxorubicin for treatment of breast cancer

Unlocking the potential of beta-glucans: a comprehensive review from synthesis to drug delivery carrier potency

Modernization and lifestyle changes have resulted in a number of diseases, including cancer, that require complicated and thorough treatments. One of the most important therapies is the administration of antibiotics and medicines. This is known as chemotherapy for cancer, and it is a regularly utilised treatment plan in which the medications used have negative side effects. This has resulted in extensive research on materials capable of delivering pharmaceuticals to particular targets over an extended period of time. Biopolymers have often been preferred as effective drug delivery carriers. Of these, β-glucan, a natural polysaccharide, has not been extensively studied as a drug delivery carrier, despite its unique properties. This review discusses the sources, extraction techniques, structures, and characteristics of β-glucan to provide an overview. Furthermore, the different methods employed to encapsulate drugs into β-glucan and its role as an efficient drug, SiRNA and Plasmid DNA carrier have been elaborated in this article. The capacity of β-glucan-based to specifically target and alter tumour-associated macrophages, inducing an immune response ultimately resulting in tumour suppression has been elaborated. Finally, this study aims to stimulate further research on β-glucan by thoroughly describing its many characteristics and demonstrating its effectiveness as a drug delivery vehicle.

Hyaluronic acid as a tumor progression agent and a potential chemotherapeutic biomolecule against cancer: A review on its dual role

Hyaluronic acid is a major constituent of the extracellular matrix of vertebrate tissue that provides mechanical support to cells and acts as a mediator in regulation of necessary biochemical process essential for maintenance of tissue homeostasis. The variation in quantity of hyaluronic acid content in tissues is often associated with different pathological conditions. It is associated with tumor aggression and progression as it plays crucial role in regulating different aspects of tumorigenesis and several defined hallmarks of cancer. It assists in tumor progression by undergoing extracellular remodeling to establish tumor microenvironment which restricts the delivery of cytotoxic drugs to neoplastic cells due to increase in interstitial pressure. Hyaluronic acid catabolic and anabolic genes and low-molecular weight hyaluronic acid play significant role in the establishing tumor microenvironment by assisting in cell proliferation, metastasis and invasion. On the other hand, it is also used as an effective drug-delivery platform in cancer therapies as its biocompatibility and biodegradability lower the toxicity of chemotherapeutic drugs and increase drug retention. High-molecular weight hyaluronic acid-bioconjugates specifically bind with hyaladherins, facilitating targeted drug delivery and also exert anti-inflammatory properties. This review also highlights the market and patent trends in the development of effective chemotherapeutic hyaluronic acid formulations and the current scenario regarding clinical trials.

Chitosan- and hyaluronic acid-based nanoarchitectures in phototherapy: Combination cancer chemotherapy, immunotherapy and gene therapy

Cancer phototherapy has been introduced as a new potential modality for tumor suppression. However, the efficacy of phototherapy has been limited due to a lack of targeted delivery of photosensitizers. Therefore, the application of biocompatible and multifunctional nanoparticles in phototherapy is appreciated. Chitosan (CS) as a cationic polymer and hyaluronic acid (HA) as a CD44-targeting agent are two widely utilized polymers in nanoparticle synthesis and functionalization. The current review focuses on the application of HA and CS nanostructures in cancer phototherapy. These nanocarriers can be used in phototherapy to induce hyperthermia and singlet oxygen generation for tumor ablation. CS and HA can be used for the synthesis of nanostructures, or they can functionalize other kinds of nanostructures used for phototherapy, such as gold nanorods. The HA and CS nanostructures can combine chemotherapy or immunotherapy with phototherapy to augment tumor suppression. Moreover, the CS nanostructures can be functionalized with HA for specific cancer phototherapy. The CS and HA nanostructures promote the cellular uptake of genes and photosensitizers to facilitate gene therapy and phototherapy. Such nanostructures specifically stimulate phototherapy at the tumor site, with particle toxic impacts on normal cells. Moreover, CS and HA nanostructures demonstrate high biocompatibility for further clinical applications.

Biotechnological potential of yeast cell wall: An overview

The yeast cell wall is a complex structure whose main function is to protect the cell from physical and chemical damage, providing it with rigidity. It is composed of a matrix of covalently linked polysaccharides and proteins, including β-glucans, mannoproteins, and chitin, whose proportion can vary according to the yeast species and environmental conditions. The main components of the yeast cell wall have relevant properties that expand the possibilities of use in different industrial sectors, such as pharmaceutical, food, medical, veterinary, and cosmetic. Some applications include bioremediation, enzyme immobilization, animal feed, wine production, and hydrogel production. In the literature it is the description of the cell wall composition of model species like Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Candida albicans, however, it is important to know that this composition can vary according to the species or the culture medium conditions. Thus, understanding the structural composition of different species holds promise as an alternative to expanding the utilization of residual yeast from different bioprocesses. In the context of a circular economy, the conversion of residual yeast into valuable products is an attractive prospect for researchers aiming to develop sustainable technologies. This review provides an overview of yeast cell wall composition and its significance in biotechnological applications, considering prospects to increase the diversification of these compounds in industry.

Glucans and applications in drug delivery

Glucan is a natural polysaccharide widely distributed in cereals and microorganisms that has various biological activities, including immunomodulatory, anti-infective, anti-inflammatory, and antitumor activities. In addition to wide applications in the broad fields of food, healthcare, and biomedicines, glucans hold promising potential as drug delivery carrier materials or ligands. Specifically, glucan microparticles or yeast cell wall particles are naturally enclosed vehicles with an interior cavity that can be exploited to carry and deliver drug payloads. The biological activities and targeting capacities of glucans depend largely on the recognition of glucan moieties by receptors such as dectin-1 and complement receptor 3, which are widely expressed on the cell membranes of mononuclear phagocytes, dendritic cells, neutrophils, and some lymphocytes. This review summarizes the chemical structures, sources, fundamental properties, extraction methods, and applications of these materials, with an emphasis on drug delivery. Glucans are utilized mainly as vaccine adjuvants, targeting ligands and as carrier materials for various drug entities. It is believed that glucans and glucan microparticles may be useful for the delivery of both small-molecule and macromolecular drugs, especially for potential treatment of immune-related diseases.

Doxorubicin-loaded zymosan nanoparticles: Synergistic cytotoxicity and modulation of apoptosis and Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway in C26 colorectal cancer cells

Zymosan is a β-glucan isolated from Saccharomyces cerevisiae that could be employed for drug delivery. We synthesized zymosan nanoparticles and measured their structural and morphological properties using XRD, UV-Vis spectroscopy, TEM and AFM. The loading of doxorubicin (DOX) onto the nanoparticles was confirmed by FT-IR, and the DOX release was shown to be pH-dependent. The effect of these agents on C26 cell viability was evaluated by MTT tests and the expression of genes connected with the Wnt/β-catenin pathway and apoptosis were analyzed by RT-qPCR and Western blotting. Treatments were able to suppress the proliferation of C26 cells, and the zymosan nanocarriers loaded with DOX enhanced the anti-proliferative effect of DOX in a synergistic manner. Zymosan nanoparticles were able to suppress the expression of cyclin D1, VEGF, ZEB1, and Twist mRNAs. Treatment groups upregulated the expression of caspase-8, while reducing the Bax/Bcl-2 ratio, thus promoting apoptosis. In conclusion, zymosan nanoparticles as DOX nanocarriers could provide a more targeted drug delivery through pH-responsiveness, and showed synergistic cytotoxicity by modifying Wnt/β-catenin signaling and apoptosis.

Yeast glucan particles: An express train for oral targeted drug delivery systems

As an emerging drug delivery vehicle, yeast glucan particles (YGPs) derived from yeast cells could be specifically taken up by macrophages. Therefore, these vehicles could rely on the recruitment of macrophages at the site of inflammation and tumors to enable targeted imaging and drug delivery. This review summarizes recent advances in the application of YGPs in oral targeted delivery systems, covering the basic structure of yeast cells, methods for pre-preparation, drug encapsulation and characterization. The mechanism and validation of the target recognition interaction of YGPs with macrophages are highlighted, and some inspiring cases are presented to show that yeast cells have promising applications. The future chances and difficulties that YGPs will confront are also emphasized throughout this essay. YGPs are not only the "armor" but also the "compass" of drugs in the process of targeted drug transport. This system is expected to provide a new idea about the oral targeted delivery of anti-inflammatory and anti-tumor drugs, and furthermore offer an effective delivery strategy for targeted therapy of other macrophage-related diseases.