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Liu F, Chen HM, Armstrong Z, Withers SG. Azido Groups Hamper Glycan Acceptance by Carbohydrate Processing Enzymes. ACS CENTRAL SCIENCE 2022; 8:656-662. [PMID: 35647280 PMCID: PMC9136970 DOI: 10.1021/acscentsci.1c01172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2021] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Azido sugars have found frequent use as probes of biological systems in approaches ranging from cell surface metabolic labeling to activity-based proteomic profiling of glycosidases. However, little attention is typically paid to how well azide-substituted sugars represent the parent molecule, despite the substantial difference in size and structure of an azide compared to a hydroxyl. To quantitatively assess how well azides are accommodated, we have used glycosidases as tractable model enzyme systems reflecting what would also be expected for glycosyltransferases and other sugar binding/modifying proteins. In this vein, specificity constants have been measured for the hydrolysis of a series of azidodeoxy glucosides and N-acetylhexosaminides by a large number of glycosidases produced from expressed synthetic gene and metagenomic libraries. Azides at secondary carbons are not significantly accommodated, and thus, associated substrates are not processed, while those at primary carbons are productively recognized by only a small subset of the enzymes and often then only very poorly. Accordingly, in the absence of careful controls, results obtained with azide-modified sugars may not be representative of the situation with the natural sugar and should be interpreted with considerable caution. Azide incorporation can indeed provide a useful tool to monitor and detect glycosylation, but careful consideration should go into the selection of sites of azide substitution; such studies should not be used to quantitate glycosylation or to infer the absence of glycosylation activity.
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2
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“Click” synthesis of amphiphilic carbohydrate-alkyl triazole derivatives. RESULTS IN CHEMISTRY 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.rechem.2022.100558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
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3
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Wang J, Dou B, Zheng L, Cao W, Dong P, Chen Y, Zeng X, Wen Y, Pan W, Ma J, Chen J, Li X. The Metabolic Chemical Reporter Ac 46AzGal Could Incorporate Intracellular Protein Modification in the Form of UDP-6AzGlc Mediated by OGT and Enzymes in the Leloir Pathway. Front Chem 2021; 9:708306. [PMID: 34712646 PMCID: PMC8546251 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2021.708306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2021] [Accepted: 09/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Galactose is a naturally occurring monosaccharide used to build complex glycans that has not been targeted for labeling as a metabolic reporter. Here, we characterize the cellular modification of proteins by using Ac46AzGal in a dose- and time-dependent manner. It is noted that a vast majority of this labeling of Ac46AzGal occurs intracellularly in a range of mammalian cells. We also provided evidence that this labeling is dependent on not only the enzymes of OGT responsible for O-GlcNAcylation but also the enzymes of GALT and GALE in the Leloir pathway. Notably, we discover that Ac46AzGal is not the direct substrate of OGT, and the labeling results may attribute to UDP-6AzGlc after epimerization of UDP-6AzGal via GALE. Together, these discoveries support the conclusion that Ac46AzGal as an analogue of galactose could metabolically label intracellular O-glycosylation modification, raising the possibility of characterization with impaired functions of the galactose metabolism in the Leloir pathway under certain conditions, such as galactosemias.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiajia Wang
- Joint National Laboratory for Antibody Drug Engineering, the First Affiliated Hospital of Henan University, School of Basic Medicine Science, Henan University, Kaifeng, China.,State Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemical Biology, Haihe Education Park, Nankai University, Tianjin, China
| | - Biao Dou
- Joint National Laboratory for Antibody Drug Engineering, the First Affiliated Hospital of Henan University, School of Basic Medicine Science, Henan University, Kaifeng, China
| | - Lu Zheng
- Joint National Laboratory for Antibody Drug Engineering, the First Affiliated Hospital of Henan University, School of Basic Medicine Science, Henan University, Kaifeng, China
| | - Wei Cao
- Joint National Laboratory for Antibody Drug Engineering, the First Affiliated Hospital of Henan University, School of Basic Medicine Science, Henan University, Kaifeng, China
| | - Peiyu Dong
- Joint National Laboratory for Antibody Drug Engineering, the First Affiliated Hospital of Henan University, School of Basic Medicine Science, Henan University, Kaifeng, China
| | - Yingyi Chen
- Joint National Laboratory for Antibody Drug Engineering, the First Affiliated Hospital of Henan University, School of Basic Medicine Science, Henan University, Kaifeng, China
| | - Xueke Zeng
- Joint National Laboratory for Antibody Drug Engineering, the First Affiliated Hospital of Henan University, School of Basic Medicine Science, Henan University, Kaifeng, China
| | - Yinhang Wen
- Joint National Laboratory for Antibody Drug Engineering, the First Affiliated Hospital of Henan University, School of Basic Medicine Science, Henan University, Kaifeng, China
| | - Wenxuan Pan
- School of Pharmacy, Institute for Innovative Drug Design and Evaluation, Henan University, Kaifeng, China
| | - Jing Ma
- School of Pharmacy, Institute for Innovative Drug Design and Evaluation, Henan University, Kaifeng, China
| | - Jingying Chen
- Joint National Laboratory for Antibody Drug Engineering, the First Affiliated Hospital of Henan University, School of Basic Medicine Science, Henan University, Kaifeng, China
| | - Xia Li
- Joint National Laboratory for Antibody Drug Engineering, the First Affiliated Hospital of Henan University, School of Basic Medicine Science, Henan University, Kaifeng, China
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4
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Tsvetkov YE, Yudina ON, Nifantiev NE. 3-Amino-3-deoxy- and 4-amino-4-deoxyhexoses in the synthesis of natural carbohydrate compounds and their analogues. RUSSIAN CHEMICAL REVIEWS 2021. [DOI: 10.1070/rcr4974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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5
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Moulis C, Guieysse D, Morel S, Séverac E, Remaud-Siméon M. Natural and engineered transglycosylases: Green tools for the enzyme-based synthesis of glycoproducts. Curr Opin Chem Biol 2020; 61:96-106. [PMID: 33360622 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2020.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2020] [Revised: 11/16/2020] [Accepted: 11/19/2020] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
An increasing number of transglycosylase-based processes provide access to oligosaccharides or glycoconjugates, some of them reaching performance levels compatible with industrial developments. Nevertheless, the full potential of transglycosylases has not been explored because of the challenges in transforming a glycoside hydrolase into an efficient transglycosylase. Advances in studying enzyme structure/function relationships, screening enzyme activity, and generating synthetic libraries guided by computational protein design or machine learning methods should considerably accelerate the development of these catalysts. The time has now come for researchers to uncover their possibilities and learn how to design and precisely refine their activity to respond more rapidly to the growing demand for well-defined glycosidic structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire Moulis
- Toulouse Biotechnology Institute (TBI), Université de Toulouse, CNRS, INRAE, INSA, 135, Avenue de Rangueil, Toulouse, Cedex 04, F-31077, France.
| | - David Guieysse
- Toulouse Biotechnology Institute (TBI), Université de Toulouse, CNRS, INRAE, INSA, 135, Avenue de Rangueil, Toulouse, Cedex 04, F-31077, France
| | - Sandrine Morel
- Toulouse Biotechnology Institute (TBI), Université de Toulouse, CNRS, INRAE, INSA, 135, Avenue de Rangueil, Toulouse, Cedex 04, F-31077, France
| | - Etienne Séverac
- Toulouse Biotechnology Institute (TBI), Université de Toulouse, CNRS, INRAE, INSA, 135, Avenue de Rangueil, Toulouse, Cedex 04, F-31077, France
| | - Magali Remaud-Siméon
- Toulouse Biotechnology Institute (TBI), Université de Toulouse, CNRS, INRAE, INSA, 135, Avenue de Rangueil, Toulouse, Cedex 04, F-31077, France.
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6
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Noncatalytic selective 6-O-acetylation of methyl 2,3-di-O-benzoyl-α-d-glucopyranoside with acetic acid and acetic anhydride. Russ Chem Bull 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s11172-020-3026-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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7
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Darabedian N, Yang B, Ding R, Cutolo G, Zaro BW, Woo CM, Pratt MR. O-Acetylated Chemical Reporters of Glycosylation Can Display Metabolism-Dependent Background Labeling of Proteins but Are Generally Reliable Tools for the Identification of Glycoproteins. Front Chem 2020; 8:318. [PMID: 32411667 PMCID: PMC7198827 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2020.00318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2020] [Accepted: 03/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Monosaccharide analogs bearing bioorthogonal functionalities, or metabolic chemical reporters (MCRs) of glycosylation, have been used for approximately two decades for the visualization and identification of different glycoproteins. More recently, proteomics analyses have shown that per-O-acetylated MCRs can directly and chemically react with cysteine residues in lysates and potentially cells, drawing into question the physiological relevance of the labeling. Here, we report robust metabolism-dependent labeling by Ac42AzMan but not the structurally similar Ac44AzGal. However, the levels of background chemical-labeling of cell lysates by both reporters are low and identical. We then characterized Ac42AzMan labeling and found that the vast majority of the labeling occurs on intracellular proteins but that this MCR is not converted to previously characterized reporters of intracellular O-GlcNAc modification. Additionally, we used isotope targeted glycoproteomics (IsoTaG) proteomics to show that essentially all of the Ac42AzMan labeling is on cysteine residues. Given the implications this result has for the identification of intracellular O-GlcNAc modifications using MCRs, we then performed a meta-analysis of the potential O-GlcNAcylated proteins identified by different techniques. We found that many of the proteins identified by MCRs have also been found by other methods. Finally, we randomly selected four proteins that had only been identified as O-GlcNAcylated by MCRs and showed that half of them were indeed modified. Together, these data indicate that the selective metabolism of certain MCRs is responsible for S-glycosylation of proteins in the cytosol and nucleus. However, these results also show that MCRs are still good tools for unbiased identification of glycosylated proteins, as long as complementary methods are employed for confirmation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Narek Darabedian
- Department of Chemistry, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Bo Yang
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, United States
| | - Richie Ding
- Biological Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Giuliano Cutolo
- Department of Chemistry, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Balyn W Zaro
- Department of Biological Science, University of Southern California, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Christina M Woo
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, United States
| | - Matthew R Pratt
- Department of Chemistry, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States.,Biological Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
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8
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Markel U, Essani KD, Besirlioglu V, Schiffels J, Streit WR, Schwaneberg U. Advances in ultrahigh-throughput screening for directed enzyme evolution. Chem Soc Rev 2020; 49:233-262. [PMID: 31815263 DOI: 10.1039/c8cs00981c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Enzymes are versatile catalysts and their synthetic potential has been recognized for a long time. In order to exploit their full potential, enzymes often need to be re-engineered or optimized for a given application. (Semi-) rational design has emerged as a powerful means to engineer proteins, but requires detailed knowledge about structure function relationships. In turn, directed evolution methodologies, which consist of iterative rounds of diversity generation and screening, can improve an enzyme's properties with virtually no structural knowledge. Current diversity generation methods grant us access to a vast sequence space (libraries of >1012 enzyme variants) that may hide yet unexplored catalytic activities and selectivity. However, the time investment for conventional agar plate or microtiter plate-based screening assays represents a major bottleneck in directed evolution and limits the improvements that are obtainable in reasonable time. Ultrahigh-throughput screening (uHTS) methods dramatically increase the number of screening events per time, which is crucial to speed up biocatalyst design, and to widen our knowledge about sequence function relationships. In this review, we summarize recent advances in uHTS for directed enzyme evolution. We shed light on the importance of compartmentalization to preserve the essential link between genotype and phenotype and discuss how cells and biomimetic compartments can be applied to serve this function. Finally, we discuss how uHTS can inspire novel functional metagenomics approaches to identify natural biocatalysts for novel chemical transformations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulrich Markel
- Institute of Biotechnology, RWTH Aachen University, Worringer Weg 3, 52074 Aachen, Germany.
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9
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Abronina PI, Malysheva NN, Zinin AI, Kolotyrkina NG, Stepanova EV, Kononov LO. Catalyst-free regioselective acetylation of primary hydroxy groups in partially protected and unprotected thioglycosides with acetic acid. RSC Adv 2020; 10:36836-36842. [PMID: 35517942 PMCID: PMC9057154 DOI: 10.1039/d0ra07360a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2020] [Accepted: 09/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Highly regioselective acetylation of primary hydroxy groups in thioglycoside derivatives with gluco- and galacto-configurations was achieved by treatment with aqueous or anhydrous acetic acid (60–100% AcOH) at elevated temperatures (80–118 °C), avoiding complex, costly and time-consuming manipulations with protective groups. Acetylation of both 4,6-O-benzylidene acetals and the corresponding diols as well as the unprotected tetraol with AcOH was shown to lead selectively to formation of 6-O-acetyl derivatives. For example, the treatment of phenyl 1-thio-β-d-glucopyranoside with anhydrous AcOH at 80 °C for 24 h gave the corresponding 6-O-acetylated derivative in 47% yield (71% based on the reacted starting material) and unreacted starting tetraol in 34% yield, which can easily be recovered by silica gel chromatography and reused in further acetylation. Highly regioselective acetylation of primary hydroxy groups in thioglycoside derivatives was achieved by treatment with aqueous or anhydrous acetic acid (60–100%) at elevated temperatures (80–118 °C), avoiding manipulations with protective groups.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Polina I. Abronina
- N. K. Kochetkov Laboratory of Carbohydrate Chemistry
- N. D. Zelinsky Institute of Organic Chemistry
- 119991 Moscow
- Russian Federation
| | - Nelly N. Malysheva
- N. K. Kochetkov Laboratory of Carbohydrate Chemistry
- N. D. Zelinsky Institute of Organic Chemistry
- 119991 Moscow
- Russian Federation
| | - Alexander I. Zinin
- N. K. Kochetkov Laboratory of Carbohydrate Chemistry
- N. D. Zelinsky Institute of Organic Chemistry
- 119991 Moscow
- Russian Federation
| | - Natalya G. Kolotyrkina
- N. K. Kochetkov Laboratory of Carbohydrate Chemistry
- N. D. Zelinsky Institute of Organic Chemistry
- 119991 Moscow
- Russian Federation
| | - Elena V. Stepanova
- N. K. Kochetkov Laboratory of Carbohydrate Chemistry
- N. D. Zelinsky Institute of Organic Chemistry
- 119991 Moscow
- Russian Federation
- Research School of Chemistry and Applied Biomedical Sciences
| | - Leonid O. Kononov
- N. K. Kochetkov Laboratory of Carbohydrate Chemistry
- N. D. Zelinsky Institute of Organic Chemistry
- 119991 Moscow
- Russian Federation
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10
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Berry J, Despras G, Lindhorst TK. A compatibility study on the glycosylation of 4,4′-dihydroxyazobenzene. RSC Adv 2020; 10:17432-17437. [PMID: 35515580 PMCID: PMC9053478 DOI: 10.1039/d0ra02435j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2020] [Accepted: 04/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Photoresponsive glycoconjugates based on the azobenzene photoswitch are valuable molecules which can be used as tools for the investigation of carbohydrate–protein interactions or as precursors of shape-switchable molecular architectures, for example. To access such compounds, glycosylation of 4,4′-dihydroxyazobenzene (DHAB) is a critical step, frequently giving heterogeneous results because DHAB is a challenging glycosyl acceptor. Therefore, DHAB glucosylation was studied using nine different glycosyl donors, and reaction conditions were systematically varied in order to find a reliable procedure, especially towards the preparation of azobenzene bis-glucosides. Particular emphasis was put on glucosyl donors which were differentiated at the primary 6-position (N3, OAc) for further functionalisation. The present study allowed us to identify suitable glycosyl donors and reaction conditions matching with DHAB, affording the bis-glycosylated products in fair yields and good stereocontrol. The glycosylation of 4,4′-dihydroxyazobenzene was investigated to identify suitable conditions providing access to valuable photoswitchable glycoconjugates.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Berry
- Otto Diels Institute of Organic Chemistry
- Christiana Albertina University of Kiel
- 24118 Kiel
- Germany
| | - Guillaume Despras
- Otto Diels Institute of Organic Chemistry
- Christiana Albertina University of Kiel
- 24118 Kiel
- Germany
| | - Thisbe K. Lindhorst
- Otto Diels Institute of Organic Chemistry
- Christiana Albertina University of Kiel
- 24118 Kiel
- Germany
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11
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Koschella A, Chien C, Iwata T, Thonhofer MS, Wrodnigg TM, Heinze T. All Sugar Based Cellulose Derivatives Synthesized by Azide–Alkyne Click Chemistry. MACROMOL CHEM PHYS 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/macp.201900343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Koschella
- Center of Excellence for Polysaccharide Research Institute for Organic Chemistry and Macromolecular Chemistry Friedrich‐Schiller University of Jena Humboldtstraße 10 07743 Jena Germany
| | - Chih‐Ying Chien
- Center of Excellence for Polysaccharide Research Institute for Organic Chemistry and Macromolecular Chemistry Friedrich‐Schiller University of Jena Humboldtstraße 10 07743 Jena Germany
- Science of Polymeric Materials Department of Biomaterial Sciences Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences The University of Tokyo 1‐1‐1 Yayoi, Bunkyo‐ku Tokyo 113‐8657 Japan
| | - Tadahisa Iwata
- Science of Polymeric Materials Department of Biomaterial Sciences Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences The University of Tokyo 1‐1‐1 Yayoi, Bunkyo‐ku Tokyo 113‐8657 Japan
| | - Martin S. Thonhofer
- Institute of Organic Chemistry Graz University of Technology Stremayrgasse 9 8010 Graz Austria
| | - Tanja M. Wrodnigg
- Institute of Organic Chemistry Graz University of Technology Stremayrgasse 9 8010 Graz Austria
| | - Thomas Heinze
- Center of Excellence for Polysaccharide Research Institute for Organic Chemistry and Macromolecular Chemistry Friedrich‐Schiller University of Jena Humboldtstraße 10 07743 Jena Germany
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12
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High-Throughput Recovery and Characterization of Metagenome-Derived Glycoside Hydrolase-Containing Clones as a Resource for Biocatalyst Development. mSystems 2019; 4:4/4/e00082-19. [PMID: 31164449 PMCID: PMC6550366 DOI: 10.1128/msystems.00082-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
The generation of new biocatalysts for plant biomass degradation and glycan synthesis has typically relied on the characterization and investigation of one or a few enzymes at a time. By coupling functional metagenomic screening and high-throughput functional characterization, we can progress beyond the current scale of catalyst discovery and provide rapid annotation of catalyst function. By functionally screening environmental DNA from many diverse sources, we have generated a suite of active glycoside hydrolase-containing clones and demonstrated their reaction parameters. We then demonstrated the utility of this collection through the generation of a new catalyst for the formation of azido-modified glycans. Further interrogation of this collection of clones will expand our biocatalytic toolbox, with potential application to biomass deconstruction and synthesis of glycans. Functional metagenomics is a powerful tool for both the discovery and development of biocatalysts. This study presents the high-throughput functional screening of 22 large-insert fosmid libraries containing over 300,000 clones sourced from natural and engineered ecosystems, characterization of active clones, and a demonstration of the utility of recovered genes or gene cassettes in the development of novel biocatalysts. Screening was performed in a 384-well-plate format with the fluorogenic substrate 4-methylumbelliferyl cellobioside, which releases a fluorescent molecule when cleaved by β-glucosidases or cellulases. The resulting set of 164 active clones was subsequently interrogated for substrate preference, reaction mechanism, thermal stability, and optimal pH. The environmental DNA harbored within each active clone was sequenced, and functional annotation revealed a cornucopia of carbohydrate-degrading enzymes. Evaluation of genomic-context information revealed both synteny and polymer-targeting loci within a number of sequenced clones. The utility of these fosmids was then demonstrated by identifying clones encoding activity on an unnatural glycoside (4-methylumbelliferyl 6-azido-6-deoxy-β-d-galactoside) and transforming one of the identified enzymes into a glycosynthase capable of forming taggable disaccharides. IMPORTANCE The generation of new biocatalysts for plant biomass degradation and glycan synthesis has typically relied on the characterization and investigation of one or a few enzymes at a time. By coupling functional metagenomic screening and high-throughput functional characterization, we can progress beyond the current scale of catalyst discovery and provide rapid annotation of catalyst function. By functionally screening environmental DNA from many diverse sources, we have generated a suite of active glycoside hydrolase-containing clones and demonstrated their reaction parameters. We then demonstrated the utility of this collection through the generation of a new catalyst for the formation of azido-modified glycans. Further interrogation of this collection of clones will expand our biocatalytic toolbox, with potential application to biomass deconstruction and synthesis of glycans.
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13
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Armstrong Z, Liu F, Chen HM, Hallam SJ, Withers SG. Systematic Screening of Synthetic Gene-Encoded Enzymes for Synthesis of Modified Glycosides. ACS Catal 2019. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.8b05179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Zachary Armstrong
- Genome Science and Technology Program, University of British Columbia, 2329 West Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6T 1Z4
| | - Feng Liu
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6T 1Z1
| | - Hong-Ming Chen
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6T 1Z1
| | - Steven J. Hallam
- Genome Science and Technology Program, University of British Columbia, 2329 West Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6T 1Z4
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6T 1Z1
- Graduate Program in Bioinformatics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6T 1Z4
| | - Stephen G. Withers
- Genome Science and Technology Program, University of British Columbia, 2329 West Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6T 1Z4
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6T 1Z1
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