Plausible role of chitosan in drug and gene delivery against resistant breast cancer cells

Chitosan nanocarriers for non-coding RNA therapeutics: A review

Non-coding RNA (ncRNA)-based therapies entail delivering ncRNAs to cells to regulate gene expression and produce proteins that combat infections, cancer, neurological diseases, and bone abnormalities. Nevertheless, the therapeutic potential of these ncRNAs has been limited due to the difficulties in delivering them to specific cellular targets within the body. Chitosan (CS), a biocompatible cationic polymer, interacts with negatively charged RNA molecules to form stable complexes. It is a promising biomaterial to develop nanocarriers for ncRNA delivery, overcoming several disadvantages of traditional delivery systems. CS-based nanocarriers can protect ncRNAs from degradation and target-specific delivery by surface modifications and intracellular release profiles over an extended period. This review briefly summarizes the recent developments in CS nanocarriers' synthesis and design considerations and their applications in ncRNA therapeutics for treating various diseases. We also discuss the challenges and limitations of CS-based nanocarriers for ncRNA therapeutics and potential strategies for overcoming these challenges.

Exploring modified chitosan-based gene delivery technologies for therapeutic advancements

One of the critical steps in gene therapy is the successful delivery of the genes. Immunogenicity and toxicity are major issues for viral gene delivery systems. Thus, non-viral vectors are explored. A cationic polysaccharide like chitosan could be used as a nonviral gene delivery vector owing to its significant interaction with negatively charged nucleic acid and biomembrane, providing effective cellular uptake. However, the native chitosan has issues of targetability, unpacking ability, and solubility along with poor buffer capability, hence requiring modifications for effective use in gene delivery. Modified chitosan has shown that the "proton sponge effect" involved in buffering the endosomal pH results in osmotic swelling owing to the accumulation of a greater amount of proton and chloride along with water. The major challenges include limited exploration of chitosan as a gene carrier, the availability of high-purity chitosan for toxicity reduction, and its immunogenicity. The genetic drugs are in their infancy phase and require further exploration for effective delivery of nucleic acid molecules as FDA-approved marketed formulations soon.

Targeted delivery and apoptosis induction of CDK-4/6 inhibitor loaded folic acid decorated lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles in breast cancer cells

Targeted drug delivery is an advanced approach for active targeting of tumor that can enhance the concentration of the drug at the site of action and reduce the off-target toxicity and non-specific effects of the drug. Folate receptors (FR) are membrane-bound surface proteins, over-expressed in numerous solid tumors, folate and folate conjugates bind to FR with higher affinity. In the present investigation, we fabricated Folic acid (FA) decorated Palbociclib loaded lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles (FA-PLPHNPs) using quality by design (QbD) approach and evaluated its anti-cancer activity in folate receptor-positive breast cancer cell lines. 1HNMR, ATR-FTIR spectroscopic techniques confirmed the formation of DSPE-PEG-FA ligand. The optimized FA-PLPHNPs formulation exhibited 143.36 ± 5.24 nm, 0.172 ± 0.004, -16.84 ± 0.27 mV, and 93.12 ± 0.43 % of particle size, PDI, zeta potential and % entrapment efficiency, respectively. The FA-PLPHNPs exhibited an approximately 9, 11-fold reduction in IC50 values than free Palbociclib in MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells at 48 h. The role of FA in targeting breast cancer was studied by means of a receptor-blocking assay, and concluded that FA-PLPHNPs were internalized into MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells by folate receptor-mediated endocytosis. FA-PLPHNPs showed higher anti-cancer efficiency and caused enhanced reactive oxygen species generation, apoptosis (Acridine orange/ ethidium bromide dual staining and Annexin V/PI staining), reduced cell migration, and colony formation. Thus, the fabricated Palbociclib-loaded FA-conjugated lipid polymer hybrid nanoparticles could act as a potential nanocarrier for the treatment of breast cancer.

Design, development, and evaluation of CDK-4/6 inhibitor loaded 4-carboxy phenyl boronic acid conjugated pH-sensitive chitosan lecithin nanoparticles in the management of breast cancer

Our main aim to design and develop a novel 4-carboxy phenyl boronic acid (4-CPBA) conjugated Palbociclib (PALB) loaded pH-sensitive chitosan lipid nanoparticles (PPCL) to enhance the anti-cancer efficacy of the PALB in in-vitro cell line studies by loading into 4-CPBA conjugated chitosan lipid nanoparticles. 4-CPBA was conjugated to chitosan by carbodiimide chemistry and formation of conjugate was confirmed by 1HNMR, ATR-FTIR spectroscopic techniques. Ionic-gelation method was used for the fabrication of PPCL and particles size, PDI, zeta potential were found to be 226.5 ± 4.3 nm, 0.271 ± 0.014 and 5.03 ± 0.42 mV. Presence of pH-sensitive biological macromolecule i.e. chitosan in the carrier system provides pH-sensitivity to PPCL and sustainedly released the drug upto 144 h. The PPCL exhibited approximately 7.2, 6.6, and 5-fold reduction in IC50 values than PALB in MCF-7, MDA-MB-231 and 4T1 cells. Receptor blocking assay concluded that the fabricated nanoparticles were internalized into MCF-7 cells might be through sialic acid-mediated endocytosis. PPCL caused extensive mitochondrial depolarization, enhanced ROS generation, apoptosis (DAPI nuclear staining, acridine orange/ ethidium bromide dual staining), and reduced % cell migration than pure PALB. It was concluded that the hybrid lipid-polymer nanoparticles provides an optimistic approach for the treatment of breast cancer.

Oral self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery systems for enhancing bioavailability and anticancer potential of fosfestrol: In vitro and in vivo characterization

PURPOSE

The objective of the current research work was to fabricate a fosfestrol (FST)-loaded self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (SNEDDS) to escalate the oral solubility and bioavailability and thereby the effectiveness of FST against prostate cancer.

METHODS

32 full factorial design was employed, and the effect of lipid and surfactant mixtures on percentage transmittance, time required for self-emulsification, and drug release were studied. The optimized solid FST-loaded SNEDDS (FSTNE) was characterized for in vitro anticancer activity and Caco-2 cell permeability, and in vivo pharmacokinetic parameters.

RESULTS

Using different ratios of surfactant and co-surfactant (Km) a pseudo ternary phase diagram was constructed. Thirteen liquid nano emulsion formulations (LNE-1 to LNE-13) were formulated at Km = 3:1. LNE-9 exhibited a higher % transmittance (99.25 ± 1.82 %) and a lower self-emulsification time (24 ± 0.32 s). No incompatibility was observed in FT-IR analysis. Within 20 min the solidified FST loaded LNE-9 (FSTNE) formulation showed almost complete drug release (98.20 ± 1.30 %) when compared to marketed formulation (40.36 ± 2.8 %), and pure FST (32 ± 3.3 %) in 0.1 N HCl. In pH 6.8 phosphate buffer, the release profiles are found moderately higher than in 0.1 N HCl. FSTNE significantly (P < 0.001) inhibited the PC-3 prostate cell proliferation and also caused apoptosis (P < 0.001) compared to FST. The in vitro Caco-2 cell permeability study results revealed 4.68-fold higher cell permeability of FSTNE than FST. Remarkably, 4.5-fold rise in bioavailability was observed after oral administration of FSTNE than plain FST.

CONCLUSIONS

FSTNE remarkably enhanced the in vitro anticancer activity and Caco-2 cell permeability, and in vivo bioavailability of FST. Thus, FST-SNEDDS could be utilized as a potential carrier for effective oral treatment of prostate cancer.

Progress in construction and release of natural polysaccharide-platinum nanomedicines: A review

Natural polysaccharides are natural biomaterials that have become candidate materials for nano-drug delivery systems due to their excellent biodegradability and biocompatibility. Platinum (Pt) drugs have been widely used in the clinical therapy for various solid tumors. However, their extensive systemic toxicity and the drug resistance acquired by cancer cells limit the applications of platinum drugs. Modern nanobiotechnology provides the possibility for targeted delivery of platinum drugs to the tumor site, thereby minimizing toxicity and optimizing the efficacies of the drugs. In recent years, numerous natural polysaccharide-platinum nanomedicine delivery carriers have been developed, such as nanomicelles, nanospheres, nanogels, etc. Herein, we provide an overview on the construction and drug release of natural polysaccharide-Pt nanomedicines in recent years. Current challenges and future prospectives in this field are also put forward. In general, combining with irradiation and tumor microenvironment provides a significant research direction for the construction of natural polysaccharide-platinum nanomedicines and the release of responsive drugs in the future.

Chitosan-Based Nanoparticles for Nucleic Acid Delivery: Technological Aspects, Applications, and Future Perspectives

Chitosan is a naturally occurring polymer derived from the deacetylation of chitin, which is an abundant carbohydrate found mainly in the shells of various marine and terrestrial (micro)organisms. Chitosan has been extensively used to construct nanoparticles (NPs), which are biocompatible, biodegradable, non-toxic, easy to prepare, and can function as effective drug delivery systems. Moreover, chitosan NPs have been employed in gene and vaccine delivery, as well as advanced cancer therapy, and they can also serve as new therapeutic tools against viral infections. In this review, we summarize the most recent developments in the field of chitosan-based NPs intended as nucleic acid delivery vehicles and gene therapy vectors. Special attention is given to the technological aspects of chitosan complexes for nucleic acid delivery.

Chitosan-based nanoscale delivery systems in hepatocellular carcinoma: Versatile bio-platform with theranostic application

The field of nanomedicine has provided a fresh approach to cancer treatment by addressing the limitations of current therapies and offering new perspectives on enhancing patients' prognoses and chances of survival. Chitosan (CS) is isolated from chitin that has been extensively utilized for surface modification and coating of nanocarriers to improve their biocompatibility, cytotoxicity against tumor cells, and stability. HCC is a prevalent kind of liver tumor that cannot be adequately treated with surgical resection in its advanced stages. Furthermore, the development of resistance to chemotherapy and radiotherapy has caused treatment failure. The targeted delivery of drugs and genes can be mediated by nanostructures in treatment of HCC. The current review focuses on the function of CS-based nanostructures in HCC therapy and discusses the newest advances of nanoparticle-mediated treatment of HCC. Nanostructures based on CS have the capacity to escalate the pharmacokinetic profile of both natural and synthetic drugs, thus improving the effectiveness of HCC therapy. Some experiments have displayed that CS nanoparticles can be deployed to co-deliver drugs to disrupt tumorigenesis in a synergistic way. Moreover, the cationic nature of CS makes it a favorable nanocarrier for delivery of genes and plasmids. The use of CS-based nanostructures can be harnessed for phototherapy. Additionally, the incur poration of ligands including arginylglycylaspartic acid (RGD) into CS can elevate the targeted delivery of drugs to HCC cells. Interestingly, smart CS-based nanostructures, including ROS- and pH-sensitive nanoparticles, have been designed to provide cargo release at the tumor site and enhance the potential for HCC suppression.

Nanoparticles incorporated in nanofibers using electrospinning: A novel nano-in-nano delivery system

Nanofibers are cutting-edge drug delivery systems that are being utilised to treat a variety of ailments. Nanofibers are mostly woven by electrospinning techniques that are majorly used in drug delivery, wound dressing, tissue engineering, sensors, etc. They have several limitations that can be addressed by developing nano-in-nano delivery techniques. Nanoparticles are incorporated into nanofibers in these nano-in-nano systems. They offer a lot of benefits over other nanosystems, including the ability to shield drugs from physical deterioration, the ability to provide prolonged drug release, high surface area to volume ratio, increased drug loading capacity and the potential to be employed in critical conditions such as cancer. These nanoparticles can be encapsulated, entrapped, or adsorbed onto nanofibers in a variety of ways. To include nanosystems into nanofibers, a variety of materials and different kinds of nanoparticles can be used. The present review gives an insight to the applications of nano - in - nano drug delivery system for different diseases/disorders. The review also brings forward the current state of these novel delivery systems along with future perspectives.

Evaluation of thermosensitive chitosan hydrogel containing gefitinib loaded cellulose acetate butyrate nanoparticles in a subcutaneous breast cancer model

In the present study, gefitinib loaded cellulose acetate butyrate nanoparticles (Gnb-NPs) were prepared and then incorporated into thermo-sensitive chitosan/β-glycerophosphate hydrogels for intratumoral administration in mice bearing breast cancer. Accordingly, Gnb-NPs were prepared using the solvent evaporation process and optimized by applying a two-level fractional factorial design. Properties of NPs, including particle size, zeta potential (ZP), polydispersity index (PdI), encapsulation efficiency (EE) % and drug loading (DL) %, were investigated; the optimized Gnb-NPs were then loaded in chitosan hydrogels (Gnb-NPs-Hydrogel). The formulated Gnb-NPs-Hydrogel was assessed in terms of gelling time, release behavior, injectability, swelling and degradation behavior. The anti-cancer efficacy of Gnb-NPs-Hydrogel was evaluated in vitro against the 4 T1 breast cancer cell line and in vivo in breast tumor bearing mice. The optimized formulation showed spherical particles with the size of 156.50 ± 2.40 nm, PdI of 0.20 ± 0.002, ZP of -4.90 ± 0.04 mV, EE of 99.77 ± 0.09 % and DL of 20.59 ± 0.05 %. Incorporating Gnb-NPs into the hydrogel led to the decrease of the drug release rate. Gnb-NPs-Hydrogel displayed a greater cytotoxic effect in comparison to the free Gnb and Gnb-Hydrogel in 4 T1 cancer cells. Furthermore,intratumorallyinjectedGnb-NPs-Hydrogel showed the strongest antitumor efficacy in vivo. The superior performance of Gnb-NPs-Hydrogel, thus, demonstrated its potential for the treatment of breast cancer.

Targeted delivery and enhanced uptake of chemo-photodynamic nanomedicine for melanoma treatment

Nanoparticles (NPs) modified with targeting ligands have often shown great potential in targeted drug delivery for tumor therapy. However, the clearance of NPs by the monocyte-phagocyte system (MPS) and the relatively low cellular uptake by tumor cells have significantly limited the antitumor efficacy of a variety of nanomedicines. Tumor microenvironment-mediated multidrug resistance also reduces the antitumor efficacy of internalized nanomedicines. Herein, we developed an innovative nanomedicine for combined chemo-photodynamic therapy of melanoma through targeted drug delivery and significantly improved the cellular uptake of the nanomedicine through the charge-reversal phenomenon. An amphiphilic platinum (IV)-polyethylenimine-chlorin e6 (Pt(IV)-PEI-Ce6) polymer was designed, prepared, and self-assembled into NPs (PPC) in an aqueous solution, and these NPs were subsequently coated with hyaluronic acid (HA) to afford PPC@HA. The surface-coated HA provided PPC with a negatively charged surface potential to reduce the clearance by the MPS during systemic circulation and enhanced the targeted delivery of PPC to CD44-overexpressing melanoma cells. Upon accumulation in the tumor site, hyaluronidase overexpressed in the tumor induced HA degradation to release the positively charged PPC, resulting in an increased internalization of PPC into tumor cells. Bioactive Pt(II) was released in response to high glutathione level in the tumor cells for effective tumor chemotherapy. Under 650 nm laser irradiation, Ce6 produced reactive oxygen species (ROS), thus driving photodynamic therapy. Finally, PPC@HA exhibited combined photodynamic-chemotherapeutic antitumor efficacy against the melanoma cells in mice. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Tumors are one of the greatest threats to human health, and chemotherapy has been one of the most common therapeutic modalities for treating tumors; however, many challenges related to chemotherapy remain, such as low delivery efficiency, side effects, and unsatisfactory therapeutic efficacy. Nanomedicines modified with targeting ligands have often shown great potential in improving targeted drug delivery for tumor therapy; however, the clearance of nanomaterials by the monocyte-phagocyte system and the relatively low cellular uptake by tumor cells have significantly limited the antitumor efficacy of a variety of nanomedicines. Herein, we developed a novel charge-reversal-based, hyaluronic acid-coated, Pt(IV) prodrug and chlorin e6-based nanomedicine to improve systemic circulation and targeted accumulation of the nanomedicine in the tumor tissue and to enhance its intracellular uptake. This nanomedicine may provide a potential new platform to improve the drug content inside tumor cells and to effectively inhibit tumor growth through combined chemotherapy and photodynamic therapy.

Recent Advances in Chitosan and its Derivatives in Cancer Treatment

Cancer has become a main public health issue globally. The conventional treatment measures for cancer include surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy. Among the various available treatment measures, chemotherapy is still one of the most important treatments for most cancer patients. However, chemotherapy for most cancers still faces many problems associated with a lot of adverse effects, which limit its therapeutic potency, low survival quality and discount cancer prognosis. In order to decrease these side effects and improve treatment effectiveness and patient’s compliance, more targeted treatments are needed. Sustainable and controlled deliveries of drugs with controllable toxicities are expected to address these hurdles. Chitosan is the second most abundant natural polysaccharide, which has excellent biocompatibility and notable antitumor activity. Its biodegradability, biocompatibility, biodistribution, nontoxicity and immunogenicity free have made chitosan become a widely used polymer in the pharmacology, especially in oncotherapy. Here, we make a brief review of the main achievements in chitosan and its derivatives in pharmacology with a special focus on their agents delivery applications, immunomodulation, signal pathway modulation and antitumor activity to highlight their role in cancer treatment. Despite a large number of successful studies, the commercialization of chitosan copolymers is still a big challenge. The further development of polymerization technology may satisfy the unmet medical needs.

Nanocarriers for anticancer drugs: challenges and perspectives

Cancer is the second most common cause of death globally, surpassed only by cardiovascular disease. One of the hallmarks of cancer is uncontrolled cell division and resistance to cell death. Multiple approaches have been developed to tackle this disease, including surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy. Although chemotherapy is used primarily to control cell division and induce cell death, some cancer cells are able to resist apoptosis and develop tolerance to these drugs. The side effects of chemotherapy are often overwhelming, and patients can experience more adverse effects than benefits. Furthermore, the bioavailability and stability of drugs used for chemotherapy are crucial issues that must be addressed, and there is therefore a high demand for a reliable delivery system that ensures fast and accurate targeting of treatment. In this review, we discuss the different types of nanocarriers, their properties and recent advances in formulations, with respect to relevant advantages and disadvantages of each.

Folic acid conjugated chitosan encapsulated palladium nanoclusters for NIR triggered photothermal breast cancer treatment

This study developed folic acid (FA) conjugated chitosan (CS) encapsulated rutin (R) synthesized palladium nanoclusters (Pd NCs) for NIR triggered and folate receptor (FR) targeted triple-negative breast cancer (MDA-MB 231 cells) treatment. R-Pd NCs exhibited flower-shaped particles with an average size of <100 nm. FA-CS encapsulation concealed the flower shape of R-Pd NCs with a positive charge. The XRD spectrum confirmed the cubic crystalline structure of Pd. The FA conjugation on CS improved the cellular uptake of R-Pd NCs in MDA-MB 231 cells was confirmed by TEM. FA-CS-R-Pd NCs (+NIR) treatment was considerably inhibited the MDA-MB 231 cells proliferation evidenced by cell viability, fluorescent staining, and flow cytometry analysis. Further, in vitro hemolysis assay and in Ovo model confirmed the non-toxic nature of FA-CS-R-Pd-NCs with or without NIR radiation. Hence, this study concluded that FA-CS-R-Pd NCs can be applied for the treatment of drug-resistant breast cancer.

Chitosan: A versatile bio-platform for breast cancer theranostics

Breast cancer is considered one of the utmost neoplastic diseases globally, with a high death rate of patients. Over the last decades, many approaches have been studied to early diagnose and treat it, such as chemotherapy, hormone therapy, immunotherapy, and MRI and biomarker tests; do not show the optimal efficacy. These existing approaches are accompanied by severe side effects, thus recognizing these challenges, a great effort has been done to find out the new remedies for breast cancer. Main finding: Nanotechnology opened a new horizon to the treatment of breast cancer. Many nanoparticulate platforms for the diagnosis of involved biomarkers and delivering antineoplastic drugs are under either clinical trials or just approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). It is well known that natural phytochemicals are successfully useful to treat breast cancer because these natural compounds are safer, available, cheaper, and have less toxic effects. Chitosan is a biocompatible and biodegradable polymer. Further, it has outstanding features, like chemical functional groups that can easily modify our interest with an exceptional choice of promising applications. Abundant studies were directed to assess the chitosan derivative-based nanoformulation's abilities in delivering varieties of drugs. However, the role of chitosan in diagnostics and theranostics not be obligated. The present servey will discuss the application of chitosan as an anticancer drug carrier such as tamoxifen, doxorubicin, paclitaxel, docetaxel, etc. and also, its role as a theranostics (i.e. photo-responsive and thermo-responsive) moieties. The therapeutic and theranostic potential of chitosan in cancer is promising and it seems that to have a good potential to get to the clinic.

Using Chitosan or Chitosan Derivatives in Cancer Therapy

Cancer is one of the major causes of death worldwide. Chemotherapeutic drugs have become a popular choice as anticancer agents. Despite the therapeutic benefits of chemotherapeutic drugs, patients often experience side effects and drug resistance. Biopolymers could be used to overcome some of the limitations of chemotherapeutic drugs, as well as be used either as anticancer agents or drug delivery vehicles. Chitosan is a biocompatible polymer derived from chitin. Chitosan, chitosan derivatives, or chitosan nanoparticles have shown their promise as an anticancer agent. Additionally, functionally modified chitosan can be used to deliver nucleic acids, chemotherapeutic drugs, and anticancer agents. More importantly, chitosan-based drug delivery systems improved the efficacy, potency, cytotoxicity, or biocompatibility of these anticancer agents. In this review, we will investigate the properties of chitosan and chemically tuned chitosan derivatives, and their application in cancer therapy.