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Xiang J, Wang Y, Su K, Liu M, Hu PC, Ma T, Li JX, Wei L, Zheng Z, Yang F. Ritonavir binds to and downregulates estrogen receptors: molecular mechanism of promoting early atherosclerosis. Exp Cell Res 2014; 327:318-30. [PMID: 25017101 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2014.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2014] [Revised: 06/29/2014] [Accepted: 07/01/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Estrogenic actions are closely related to cardiovascular disease. Ritonavir (RTV), a human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) protease inhibitor, induces atherosclerosis in an estrogen-related manner. However, how RTV induce pathological phenotypes through estrogen pathway remains unclear. In this study, we found that RTV increases thickness of coronary artery walls of Sprague Dawley rats and plasma free fatty acids (FFA) levels. In addition, RTV could induce foam cell formation, downregulate both estrogen receptor α (ERα) and ERβ expression, upregulate G protein-coupled estrogen receptor (GPER) expression, and all of them could be partially blocked by 17β-estradiol (E2), suggesting RTV acts as an antagonist for E2. Computational modeling shows a similar interaction with ERα between RTV and 2-aryl indoles, which are highly subtype-selective ligands for ERα. We also found that RTV directly bound to ERα and selectively inhibited the nuclear localization of ERα, and residue Leu536 in the hydrophobic core of ligand binding domain (LBD) was essential for the interaction with RTV. In addition, RTV did not change the secondary structure of ERα-LBD like E2, which explained how ERα lost the capacity of nuclear translocation under the treatment of RTV. All of the evidences suggest that ritonavir acts as an antagonist for 17β-estradiol in regulating α subtype estrogen receptor function and early events of atherosclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin Xiang
- Ministry of Education Laboratory of Combinatorial Biosynthesis and Drug Discovery, School of Pharmaceutical Science, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430071, PR China
| | - Ying Wang
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430071, PR China
| | - Ke Su
- Department of Nephrology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan 430060, PR China
| | - Min Liu
- Ministry of Education Laboratory of Combinatorial Biosynthesis and Drug Discovery, School of Pharmaceutical Science, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430071, PR China
| | - Peng-Chao Hu
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430071, PR China
| | - Tian Ma
- Ministry of Education Laboratory of Combinatorial Biosynthesis and Drug Discovery, School of Pharmaceutical Science, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430071, PR China
| | - Jia-Xi Li
- Ministry of Education Laboratory of Combinatorial Biosynthesis and Drug Discovery, School of Pharmaceutical Science, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430071, PR China
| | - Lei Wei
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430071, PR China
| | - Zhongliang Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, PR China.
| | - Fang Yang
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430071, PR China.
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Dai Y, Wang X, Ding Z, Dai D, Mehta JL. DPP-4 inhibitors repress foam cell formation by inhibiting scavenger receptors through protein kinase C pathway. Acta Diabetol 2014; 51:471-8. [PMID: 24363097 DOI: 10.1007/s00592-013-0541-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2013] [Accepted: 12/02/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Studies show that dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitors may have an anti-atherosclerotic effect. Since foam cells are key components of atherosclerotic plaque, we studied the effect of DPP-4 inhibitors on foam cell formation. Foam cell formation was studied by treatment of THP-1 macrophages with oxidized low-density lipoprotein in the absence or presence of DPP-4 inhibitors (sitagliptin and NVPDPP728). The expression of scavenger receptors SRA, CD36 and LOX-1 was measured, and their role in foam cell formation in the presence of DPP-4 inhibitors was examined. In additional studies, role of protein kinase C and A in the effect of DPP-4 inhibitors was examined. Foam cell formation was markedly reduced by both DPP-4 inhibitors, as was the expression of CD36 and LOX-1 (CD36 ≫ LOX-1), but not SRA. Simultaneously, there was a reduction in phosphorylated PKC, but not PKA, content. Recovery of phosphorylated PKC following treatment of cells negated the effect of DPP-4 inhibitors on foam cell formation. Further, overexpression of CD36 or LOX-1 blocked the effect of DPP-4 inhibitors on foam cell formation. DPP-4 inhibitors repress foam cell formation through the inhibition of SRs CD36 and LOX-1, most likely via the inhibition of PKC activity. This study provides novel insights into the mechanism of inhibition of atherosclerosis by DPP-4 inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yao Dai
- Department of Endocrinology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, People's Republic of China
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