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Abdelgawad FE, Abd El-Rahman GI, Behairy A, Abd-Elhakim YM, Saber TM, Metwally MMM, El-Fatah SSA, Samaha MM, Saber T, Aglan MA. Thymol's modulation of cellular macromolecules, oxidative stress, DNA damage, and NF-kB/caspase-3 signaling in the liver of imidacloprid-exposed rats. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2024; 109:104492. [PMID: 38838874 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2024.104492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2023] [Revised: 05/29/2024] [Accepted: 06/01/2024] [Indexed: 06/07/2024]
Abstract
We evaluated whether thymol (THY) (30 mg/kg b.wt) could relieve the adverse effects of the neonicotinoid insecticide imidacloprid (IMD) (22.5 mg/kg b.wt) on the liver in a 56-day oral experiment and the probable underlying mechanisms. THY significantly suppressed the IMD-associated increase in hepatic enzyme leakage. Besides, the IMD-induced dyslipidemia was considerably corrected by THY. Moreover, THY significantly repressed the IMD-induced hepatic oxidative stress, lipid peroxidation, DNA damage, and inflammation. Of note, the Feulgen, mercuric bromophenol blue, and PAS-stained hepatic tissue sections analysis declared that treatment with THY largely rescued the IMD-induced depletion of the DNA, total proteins, and polysaccharides. Moreover, THY treatment did not affect the NF-kB p65 immunoexpression but markedly downregulated the Caspase-3 in the hepatocytes of the THY+IMD-treated group than the IMD-treated group. Conclusively, THY could efficiently protect against IMD-induced hepatotoxicity, probably through protecting cellular macromolecules and antioxidant, antiapoptotic, and anti-inflammatory activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fathy Elsayed Abdelgawad
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Islamic University of Madinah, Madinah 42351, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Ghada I Abd El-Rahman
- Department of Clinical Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44519, Egypt
| | - Amany Behairy
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44519, Egypt
| | - Yasmina M Abd-Elhakim
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44519, Egypt.
| | - Taghred M Saber
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44519, Egypt
| | - Mohamed M M Metwally
- Department of Pathology and Clinical pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, King Salman international University, Ras sidr Egypt; Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt
| | - Samaa Salah Abd El-Fatah
- Department of Human Anatomy and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt
| | - Mariam M Samaha
- Faculty of Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44519, Egypt
| | - Taisir Saber
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Taif University, P.O. Box 11099, Taif 21944, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohamed Abdelrahman Aglan
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Clinical Toxicology, Faculty of medicine, Al-Azhar University, Cairo, Egypt
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Inhibitory Effect of Thymol on Tympanostomy Tube Biofilms of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus and Ciprofloxacin-Resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10091867. [PMID: 36144469 PMCID: PMC9505391 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10091867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2022] [Revised: 09/13/2022] [Accepted: 09/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The formation of antibiotic-resistant strain biofilms in tympanostomy tubes results in persistent and refractory otorrhea. In the present study, we investigated the in vitro antibiofilm activity of thymol against biofilms formed by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and ciprofloxacin-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa (CRPA), using live and dead bacterial staining and adhesion, biofilm formation, biofilm eradication, and biofilm hydrolytic activity assays. The antibiofilm activity of thymol against tympanostomy tube biofilms formed by MRSA and CRPA strains was examined using a scanning electron microscope. In response to thymol treatment, we detected significant concentration-dependent reductions in the viability and adhesion of MRSA and CRPA. Exposure to thymol also inhibited the formation of both MRSA and CRPA biofilms. Furthermore, thymol was observed to enhance the eradication of preformed mature biofilms produced by MRSA and CRPA and also promoted a reduction in the rates of MRSA and CRPA hydrolysis. Exposure to thymol eradicated extracellular polysaccharide present in the biofilm matrix produced by MRSA and CRPA. Additionally, thymol was observed to significantly eradicate MRSA and CRPA biofilms that had formed on the surface on tympanostomy tubes. Collectively, our findings indicate that thymol is an effective inhibitor of MRSA and CRPA biofilms, and accordingly has potential utility as a therapeutic agent for the treatment of biofilm-associated refractory post-tympanostomy tube otorrhea resulting from MRSA and CRPA infection.
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Blueberry extract attenuates norepinephrine-induced oxidative stress and apoptosis in H9c2 cardiac cells. Mol Cell Biochem 2022; 477:663-672. [PMID: 34988854 DOI: 10.1007/s11010-021-04313-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2021] [Accepted: 11/24/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Enhanced sympathetic system activation mediated by norepinephrine (NE) contributes to adverse cardiac remodeling leading to oxidative stress and cell death, progressing to heart failure. Natural antioxidants may help maintain redox balance, attenuating NE-mediated cardiac cell damage. In the present study, we evaluated the effect of a blueberry extract (BBE) on H9c2 cardiac cells exposed to NE on cell death, oxidative stress status and its major signaling pathways. H9c2 cells were pre-incubated with 50 μg/ml of BBE for 4 h and maintained in the presence of 100 μM NE for 24 h. NE exposure resulted in increased caspase 3/7 activity. This was associated with reduced protein expression of antioxidants catalase, superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase and increase in 4-hydroxynonenal adduct formation. NE led to increased activity of Protein kinase B (Akt), Forkhead box O3a and AMP-activated protein kinase alpha and decreased activity of Signal transducer and activator of transcription 3. BBE prevented caspases activation and abrogated NE-induced increase in oxidative stress, as well as attenuated the increase in Akt. Based on these findings, it is concluded that BBE promoted cardioprotection of H9c2 cells in an in vitro model of NE-induced oxidative damage, suggesting a cardioprotective role for BBE in response to NE exposure.
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Salehi B, Quispe C, Imran M, Ul-Haq I, Živković J, Abu-Reidah IM, Sen S, Taheri Y, Acharya K, Azadi H, del Mar Contreras M, Segura-Carretero A, Mnayer D, Sethi G, Martorell M, Abdull Razis AF, Sunusi U, Kamal RM, Rasul Suleria HA, Sharifi-Rad J. Nigella Plants - Traditional Uses, Bioactive Phytoconstituents, Preclinical and Clinical Studies. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:625386. [PMID: 33981219 PMCID: PMC8107825 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.625386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2020] [Accepted: 02/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Nigella is a small genus of the family Ranunculaceae, which includes some popular species due to their culinary and medicinal properties, especially in Eastern Europe, Middle East, Western, and Central Asia. Therefore, this review covers the traditional uses and phytochemical composition of Nigella and, in particular, Nigella sativa. The pharmacological studies reported in vitro, in vivo, and in humans have also been reviewed. One of the main strength of the use of Nigella is that the seeds are rich in the omega-6 fatty acid linoleic acid and provide an extra-source of dietary phytochemicals, including the bioactive thymoquinone, and characteristics saponins, alkaloids, and flavonoids. Among Nigella species, N. sativa L. is the most studied plant from the genus. Due to the phytochemical composition and pharmacological properties, the seed and seed oil from this plant can be considered as good candidates to formulate functional ingredients on the basis of folklore and scientific knowledge. Nonetheless, the main limations are that more studies, especially, clinical trials are required to standardize the results, e.g. to establish active molecules, dosage, chemical profile, long-term effects and impact of cooking/incorporation into foods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bahare Salehi
- Medical Ethics and Law Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Cristina Quispe
- Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Arturo Prat, Iquique, Chile
| | - Muhammad Imran
- Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, University Institute of Diet and Nutritional Sciences, The University of Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Iahtisham Ul-Haq
- Department of Diet and Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of Health and Allied Sciences, Imperial College of Business Studies, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Jelena Živković
- Institute for Medicinal Plants Research “Dr. Josif Pančić”, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Ibrahim M. Abu-Reidah
- Department of Environmental Science/Boreal Ecosystem Research Initiative, Memorial University of Newfoundland, Corner Brook, NL, Canada
| | - Surjit Sen
- Molecular and Applied Mycology and Plant Pathology Laboratory, Department of Botany, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, India
- Department of Botany, Fakir Chand College, Diamond Harbour, India
| | - Yasaman Taheri
- Phytochemistry Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Krishnendu Acharya
- Molecular and Applied Mycology and Plant Pathology Laboratory, Department of Botany, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, India
| | - Hamed Azadi
- Department of Agronomy and Plant Breeding Science, College of Aburaihan, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - María del Mar Contreras
- Department of Chemical, Environmental and Materials Engineering, University of Jaén, Jaén, Spain
| | - Antonio Segura-Carretero
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
- Research and Development Functional Food Centre (CIDAF), Bioregión Building, Health Science Technological Park, Granada, Spain
| | - Dima Mnayer
- Faculty of Sciences, Lebanese University, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Gautam Sethi
- Department of Pharmacology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Miquel Martorell
- Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Pharmacy, and Centre for Healthy Living, University of Concepción, Concepción, Chile
- Unidad de Desarrollo Tecnológico, UDT, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
| | - Ahmad Faizal Abdull Razis
- Department of Food Science, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
- Natural Medicines and Products Research Laboratory, Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
| | - Usman Sunusi
- Natural Medicines and Products Research Laboratory, Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
- Department of Biochemistry, Bayero University Kano, Kano, Nigeria
| | - Ramla Muhammad Kamal
- Natural Medicines and Products Research Laboratory, Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
- Department of Pharmacology, Federal University Dutse, Dutse, Nigeria
| | | | - Javad Sharifi-Rad
- Phytochemistry Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
- Facultad de Medicina, Universidad del Azuay, Cuenca, Ecuador
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Ahmed LA, Hassan OF, Galal O, Mansour DF, El-Khatib A. Beneficial effects of benfotiamine, a NADPH oxidase inhibitor, in isoproterenol-induced myocardial infarction in rats. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0232413. [PMID: 32384080 PMCID: PMC7209119 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0232413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2019] [Accepted: 04/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Acute myocardial infarction (AMI) remains the most common cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. The present study was directed to investigate the beneficial effects of benfotiamine pre- and post-treatments in isoproterenol (ISO)-induced MI in rats. METHODS Myocardial heart damage was induced by subcutaneous injection of ISO (150 mg/kg) once daily for two consecutive days. Benfotiamine (100 mg/kg/day) was given orally for two weeks before or after ISO treatment. RESULTS ISO administration revealed significant changes in electrocardiographic recordings, elevation of levels of cardiac enzymes; creatinine kinase (CK-MB) and troponin-I (cTn-I), and perturbation of markers of oxidative stress; nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase, malondialdehyde (MDA), reduced glutathione (GSH), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and markers of inflammation; protein kinase C (PKC), nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) and metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9). The apoptotic markers (caspase-8 and p53) were also significantly elevated in ISO groups in addition to histological alterations. Groups treated with benfotiamine pre- and post-ISO administration showed significantly decreased cardiac enzymes levels and improved oxidative stress, inflammatory and apoptotic markers compared to the ISO groups. CONCLUSION The current study highlights the potential role of benfotiamine as a promising agent for prophylactic and therapeutic interventions in myocardial damage in several cardiovascular disorders via NADPH oxidase inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lamiaa A. Ahmed
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
| | - Omnia F. Hassan
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, MSA University, 6th of October City, Egypt
| | - Omneya Galal
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ahram Canadian University, 6th of October City, Egypt
| | - Dina F. Mansour
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical Research Division, National Research Centre, Egypt
| | - Aiman El-Khatib
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
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α-Bisabolol abrogates isoproterenol-induced myocardial infarction by inhibiting mitochondrial dysfunction and intrinsic pathway of apoptosis in rats. Mol Cell Biochem 2018; 453:89-102. [PMID: 30159796 DOI: 10.1007/s11010-018-3434-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2018] [Accepted: 08/21/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Mitochondrial dysfunction plays crucial role in the pathologenesis of myocardial infarction (MI). The present study evaluated the protective effect of α-bisabolol against isoproterenol (ISO)-induced mitochondrial dysfunction and apoptosis in rats. Male albino Wistar rats were pre- and co-treated with intraperitoneal injection of α-bisabolol (25 mg/kg body weight) daily for 10 days. To induce experimental MI, ISO (85 mg/kg body weight) was injected subcutaneously to the rats at an interval of 24 h for 2 days (9th and 10th day). ISO-induced MI was indicated by the decreased activities of heart creatine kinase and lactate dehydrogenase in rats. ISO administration also enhanced the concentrations of heart mitochondrial lipid peroxidation products and decreased the activities/concentrations of mitochondrial antioxidants, Kreb's cycle dehydrogenases and mitochondrial electron transport chain complexes I, II + III and IV in rats. Furthermore, ISO triggers calcium overload and ATP depletion in the rat's heart mitochondria followed by the mitochondrial cytochrome-C release and the activation of intrinsic pathway of apoptosis by upregulating the myocardial pro-apoptotic Bax, P53, APAF-1, active caspase-3, active caspase-9 and down regulating the expressions of anti-apoptotic Bcl-2. α-Bisabolol pre and co-treatment showed considerable protective effects on all the biochemical and molecular parameters studied. Transmission electron microscopic study and mitochondrial swelling assay confirmed our biochemical and molecular findings. The in vitro study on hydroxyl radical also revealed the potent free radical scavenging activity of α-bisabolol. Thus, α-bisabolol attenuates mitochondrial dysfunction and intrinsic pathway of apoptosis in ISO-induced myocardial infarcted rats.
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Meeran MFN, Laham F, Al-Taee H, Azimullah S, Ojha S. Protective effects of α-bisabolol on altered hemodynamics, lipid peroxidation, and nonenzymatic antioxidants in isoproterenol-induced myocardial infarction: In vivo and in vitro evidences. J Biochem Mol Toxicol 2018; 32:e22200. [DOI: 10.1002/jbt.22200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2018] [Revised: 06/26/2018] [Accepted: 07/06/2018] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed Fizur Nagoor Meeran
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics; College of Medicine and Health Sciences, UAE University; Al Ain Abu Dhabi UAE
| | - Farah Laham
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics; College of Medicine and Health Sciences, UAE University; Al Ain Abu Dhabi UAE
| | - Hasan Al-Taee
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics; College of Medicine and Health Sciences, UAE University; Al Ain Abu Dhabi UAE
| | - Sheikh Azimullah
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics; College of Medicine and Health Sciences, UAE University; Al Ain Abu Dhabi UAE
| | - Shreesh Ojha
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics; College of Medicine and Health Sciences, UAE University; Al Ain Abu Dhabi UAE
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Up-regulation of TRAF2 Suppresses Neuronal Apoptosis after Rat Spinal Cord Injury. Tissue Cell 2017; 49:589-596. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tice.2017.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2017] [Revised: 08/06/2017] [Accepted: 08/07/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Nagoor Meeran MF, Javed H, Al Taee H, Azimullah S, Ojha SK. Pharmacological Properties and Molecular Mechanisms of Thymol: Prospects for Its Therapeutic Potential and Pharmaceutical Development. Front Pharmacol 2017; 8:380. [PMID: 28694777 PMCID: PMC5483461 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2017.00380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 230] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2017] [Accepted: 05/31/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Thymol, chemically known as 2-isopropyl-5-methylphenol is a colorless crystalline monoterpene phenol. It is one of the most important dietary constituents in thyme species. For centuries, it has been used in traditional medicine and has been shown to possess various pharmacological properties including antioxidant, free radical scavenging, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antispasmodic, antibacterial, antifungal, antiseptic and antitumor activities. The present article presents a detailed review of the scientific literature which reveals the pharmacological properties of thymol and its multiple therapeutic actions against various cardiovascular, neurological, rheumatological, gastrointestinal, metabolic and malignant diseases at both biochemical and molecular levels. The noteworthy effects of thymol are largely attributed to its anti-inflammatory (via inhibiting recruitment of cytokines and chemokines), antioxidant (via scavenging of free radicals, enhancing the endogenous enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants and chelation of metal ions), antihyperlipidemic (via increasing the levels of high density lipoprotein cholesterol and decreasing the levels of low density lipoprotein cholesterol and low density lipoprotein cholesterol in the circulation and membrane stabilization) (via maintaining ionic homeostasis) effects. This review presents an overview of the current in vitro and in vivo data supporting thymol's therapeutic activity and the challenges concerning its use for prevention and its therapeutic value as a dietary supplement or as a pharmacological agent or as an adjuvant along with current therapeutic agents for the treatment of various diseases. It is one of the potential candidates of natural origin that has shown promising therapeutic potential, pharmacological properties and molecular mechanisms as well as pharmacokinetic properties for the pharmaceutical development of thymol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed Fizur Nagoor Meeran
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, College of Medicine and Health Science, United Arab Emirates UniversityAl Ain, United Arab Emirates
| | - Hayate Javed
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Medicine and Health Science, United Arab Emirates UniversityAl Ain, United Arab Emirates
| | - Hasan Al Taee
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, College of Medicine and Health Science, United Arab Emirates UniversityAl Ain, United Arab Emirates
| | - Sheikh Azimullah
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, College of Medicine and Health Science, United Arab Emirates UniversityAl Ain, United Arab Emirates
| | - Shreesh K. Ojha
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, College of Medicine and Health Science, United Arab Emirates UniversityAl Ain, United Arab Emirates
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Momordica charantia polysaccharides ameliorate oxidative stress, hyperlipidemia, inflammation, and apoptosis during myocardial infarction by inhibiting the NF-κB signaling pathway. Int J Biol Macromol 2017; 97:544-551. [PMID: 28109806 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2017.01.074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2016] [Revised: 01/02/2017] [Accepted: 01/15/2017] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The polysaccharide extract of Momordica charantia has various biological activities; however, its effect on endothelial dysfunction in myocardial infarction remains unclear. To elucidate this, myocardial infarction was induced in rats using isoproterenol (ISP). Pretreatment with M. charantia polysaccharides (MCP; 150 or 300mg/kg) for 25days significantly inhibited increases in heart weight, the heart-weight-to-body-weight ratio, and infarction size, and ameliorated the increased serum levels of aspartate transaminase, creatine kinase, lactate dehydrogenase, total cholesterol, triglycerides, very-low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol. In addition, MCP enhanced the activity of superoxide dismutase, catalase, and non-protein sulfhydryls, and decreased the level of lipid peroxidation. Moreover, MCP pretreatment downregulated the expression of proinflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin (IL)-6, and IL-10), inflammatory markers (nitric oxide, myeloperoxidase, and inducible nitric oxide synthase), and apoptotic markers (caspase-3 and BAX), and upregulated Bcl-2 expression. Pretreatment with MCP reduced myonecrosis, edema, and inflammatory cell infiltration, and restored cardiomyocytes architecture. This myocardial protective effect could be related to the enhancement of the antioxidant defense system through the nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kB) pathways, and to anti-apoptosis through regulation of Bax, caspase-3, and Bcl-2.
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