Plasticity in body temperature and metabolic capacity sustains winter activity in a small endotherm (Rattus fuscipes)

Bat thermoregulation in the heat: seasonal variation in evaporative cooling capacities in four species of European bats

Phenotypic flexibility is an important source of physiological variation in endotherms and plays an integral role in species' response to rapid environmental changes. Studies of phenotypic flexibility have focused on winter acclimatization and cold endurance, and there are fewer data on summer acclimatization and adjustments in heat dissipation capacity, especially in Temperate-Zone species. We used indirect calorimetry and thermometry to test if thermoregulation at high air temperatures (Ta) varies between spring and summer in four species of European vespertilionid bats: Nyctalus noctula, Pipistrellus nathusii, P. pygmaeus, and P. pipistrellus. We measured subcutaneous body temperature (Tsub), evaporative water loss, and resting metabolic rate while exposing bats to a stepped profile of increasing Ta, from 28 °C-48 °C. We predicted that during summer, bats increase heat tolerance and evaporative cooling capacity, to better tolerate hotter Tas. In contrast, we found lower maximum ratios of evaporative heat loss (EHL) to metabolic heat production (MHP) during summer, but no seasonal differences in maximum Ta tolerated or Tsub. The main cause of this seasonal difference in maximum EHL/MHP seems to be from bats increasing EWL more gradually with increasing Ta in summer than spring, particularly in the smaller Pipistrellus species. Therefore, this seasonal variation in heat-dissipation strategies may reflect enhanced water conservation during summer to avoid dehydration, as bats are confined to roosts for longer and hotter days compared to spring.

Optimal sampling interval for characterisation of the circadian rhythm of body temperature in homeothermic animals using periodogram and cosinor analysis

Core body temperature (T c) is a critical aspect of homeostasis in birds and mammals and is increasingly used as a biomarker of the fitness of an animal to its environment. Periodogram and cosinor analysis can be used to estimate the characteristics of the circadian rhythm of T c from data obtained on loggers that have limited memory capacity and battery life. The sampling interval can be manipulated to maximise the recording period, but the impact of sampling interval on the output of periodogram or cosinor analysis is unknown. Some basic guidelines are available from signal analysis theory, but those guidelines have never been tested on T c data. We obtained data at 1-, 5- or 10-min intervals from nine avian or mammalian species, and re-sampled those data to simulate logging at up to 240-min intervals. The period of the rhythm was first analysed using the Lomb-Scargle periodogram, and the mesor, amplitude, acrophase and adjusted coefficient of determination (R 2) from the original and the re-sampled data were obtained using cosinor analysis. Sampling intervals longer than 60 min did not affect the average mesor, amplitude, acrophase or adjusted R 2, but did impact the estimation of the period of the rhythm. In most species, the period was not detectable when intervals longer than 120 min were used. In all individual profiles, a 30-min sampling interval modified the values of the mesor and amplitude by less than 0.1°C, and the adjusted R 2 by less than 0.1. At a 30-min interval, the acrophase was accurate to within 15 min for all species except mice. The adjusted R 2 increased as sampling frequency decreased. In most cases, a 30-min sampling interval provides a reliable estimate of the circadian T c rhythm using periodogram and cosinor analysis. Our findings will help biologists to select sampling intervals to fit their research goals.

Non-Torpid Heterothermy in Mammals: Another Category along the Homeothermy-Hibernation Continuum

Variability in body temperature is now recognized to be widespread among whole-body endotherms with homeothermy being the exception rather than the norm. A wide range of body temperature patterns exists in extant endotherms, spanning from strict homeothermy, to occasional use of torpor, to deep seasonal hibernation with many points in between. What is often lost in discussions of heterothermy in endotherms are the benefits of variations in body temperature outside of torpor. Endotherms that do not use torpor can still obtain extensive energy and water savings from varying levels of flexibility in normothermic body temperature regulation. Flexibility at higher temperatures (heat storage or facultative hyperthermia) can provide significant water savings, while decreases at cooler temperatures, even outside of torpor, can lower the energetic costs of thermoregulation during rest. We discuss the varying uses of the terms heterothermy, thermolability, and torpor to describe differences in the amplitude of body temperature cycles and advocate for a broader use of the term "heterothermy" to include non-torpid variations in body temperature.

Avian adjustments to cold and non-shivering thermogenesis: whats, wheres and hows

Avian cold adaptation is hallmarked by innovative strategies of both heat conservation and thermogenesis. While minimizing heat loss can reduce the thermogenic demands of body temperature maintenance, it cannot eliminate the requirement for thermogenesis. Shivering and non-shivering thermogenesis (NST) are the two synergistic mechanisms contributing to endothermy. Birds are of particular interest in studies of NST as they lack brown adipose tissue (BAT), the major organ of NST in mammals. Critical analysis of the existing literature on avian strategies of cold adaptation suggests that skeletal muscle is the principal site of NST. Despite recent progress, isolating the mechanisms involved in avian muscle NST has been difficult as shivering and NST co-exist with its primary locomotory function. Herein, we re-evaluate various proposed molecular bases of avian skeletal muscle NST. Experimental evidence suggests that sarco(endo)plasmic reticulum Ca²⁺ -ATPase (SERCA) and ryanodine receptor 1 (RyR1) are key in avian muscle NST, through their mediation of futile Ca²⁺ cycling and thermogenesis. More recent studies have shown that SERCA regulation by sarcolipin (SLN) facilitates muscle NST in mammals; however, its role in birds is unclear. Ca²⁺ signalling in the muscle seems to be common to contraction, shivering and NST, but elucidating its roles will require more precise measurement of local Ca²⁺ levels inside avian myofibres. The endocrine control of avian muscle NST is still poorly defined. A better understanding of the mechanistic details of avian muscle NST will provide insights into the roles of these processes in regulatory thermogenesis, which could further inform our understanding of the evolution of endothermy among vertebrates.

Phenotypic plasticity to chronic cold exposure in two species of Peromyscus from different environments

Effective thermoregulation is important for mammals, particularly those that remain winter-active. Adjustments in thermoregulatory capacity in response to chronic cold can improve capacities for metabolic heat production (cold-induced maximal oxygen consumption, [Formula: see text]), minimize rates of heat loss (thermal conductance), or both. This can be challenging for animals living in chronically colder habitats where necessary resources (i.e., food, O₂) for metabolic heat production are limited. Here we used lowland native white-footed mice (Peromyscus leucopus) and highland deer mice (P. maniculatus) native to 4300 m, to test the hypothesis that small winter-active mammals have evolved distinct cold acclimation responses to tailor their thermal physiology based on the energetic demands of their environment. We found that both species increased their [Formula: see text] after cold acclimation, associated with increases in brown adipose tissue mass and expression of uncoupling protein 1. They also broadened their thermoneutral zone to include lower ambient temperatures. This was accompanied by an increase in basal metabolic rate but only in white-footed mice, and neither species adjusted thermal conductance. Unique to highland deer mice was a mild hypothermia as ambient temperatures decreased, which reduced the gradient for heat loss, possibly to save energy in the chronically cold high alpine. These results highlight that thermal acclimation involves coordinated plasticity of numerous traits and suggest that small, winter-active mammals may adjust different aspects of their physiology in response to changing temperatures to best suit their energetic and thermoregulatory needs.

Survivable hypothermia or torpor in a wild-living rat: rare insights broaden our understanding of endothermic physiology

Maintaining a high and stable body temperature as observed in endothermic mammals and birds is energetically costly. Thus, it is not surprising that we discover more and more heterothermic species that can reduce their energetic needs during energetic bottlenecks through the use of torpor. However, not all heterothermic animals use torpor on a regular basis. Torpor may also be important to an individual’s probability of survival, and hence fitness, when used infrequently. We here report the observation of a single, ~ 5.5 h long hypothermic bout with a decrease in body temperature by 12 °C in the native Australian bush rat (Rattus fuscipes). Our data suggest that bush rats are able to rewarm from a body temperature of 24 °C, albeit with a rewarming rate lower than that expected on the basis of their body mass. Heterothermy, i.e. the ability to withstand and overcome periods of reduced body temperature, is assumed to be an evolutionarily ancestral (plesiomorphic) trait. We thus argue that such rare hypothermic events in species that otherwise appear to be strictly homeothermic could be heterothermic rudiments, i.e. a less derived form of torpor with limited capacity for rewarming. Importantly, observations of rare and extreme thermoregulatory responses by wild animals are more likely to be discovered with long-term data sets and may not only provide valuable insight about the physiological capability of a population, but can also help us to understand the constraints and evolutionary pathways of different phenologies.

Avian red blood cell mitochondria produce more heat in winter than in autumn

Endotherms in cold regions improve heat-producing capacity when preparing for winter. We know comparatively little about how this change is fueled by seasonal adaptation in cellular respiration. Thus, we studied the changes of mitochondrial function in red blood cells in sympatric Coal (Periparus ater), Blue (Cyanistes caeruleus), and Great (Parus major) tits between autumn and winter. These species differ more than twofold in body mass and in several aspects of their foraging ecology and social dominance, which could require differential seasonal adaptation of energy expenditure. Coal and Great tits in particular upregulated the mitochondrial respiration rate and mitochondrial volume in winter. This was not directed toward ATP synthesis, instead reflecting increased uncoupling of electron transport from ATP production. Because uncoupling is exothermic, this increased heat-producing capacity at the sub-cellular level in winter. This previously unexplored the route of thermogenesis in birds should be addressed in future work.

Plasticity of Performance Curves Can Buffer Reaction Rates from Body Temperature Variation in Active Endotherms

Endotherms regulate their core body temperature by adjusting metabolic heat production and insulation. Endothermic body temperatures are therefore relatively stable compared to external temperatures. The thermal sensitivity of biochemical reaction rates is thought to have co-evolved with body temperature regulation so that optimal reaction rates occur at the regulated body temperature. However, recent data show that core body temperatures even of non-torpid endotherms fluctuate considerably. Additionally, peripheral temperatures can be considerably lower and more variable than core body temperatures. Here we discuss whether published data support the hypothesis that thermal performance curves of physiological reaction rates are plastic so that performance is maintained despite variable body temperatures within active (non-torpid) endotherms, and we explore mechanisms that confer plasticity. There is evidence that thermal performance curves in tissues that experience thermal fluctuations can be plastic, although this question remains relatively unexplored for endotherms. Mechanisms that alter thermal responses locally at the tissue level include transient potential receptor ion channels (TRPV and TRPM) and the AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) both of which can influence metabolism and energy expenditure. Additionally, the thermal sensitivity of processes that cause post-transcriptional RNA degradation can promote the relative expression of cold-responsive genes. Endotherms can respond to environmental fluctuations similarly to ectotherms, and thermal plasticity complements core body temperature regulation to increase whole-organism performance. Thermal plasticity is ancestral to endothermic thermoregulation, but it has not lost its selective advantage so that modern endotherms are a physiological composite of ancestral ectothermic and derived endothermic traits.

The shift of thermoneutral zone in striped hamster acclimated to different temperatures

Temperature affects all biological functions and will therefore modulate ecologically significant interactions between animals and their environment. Here, we examined the effect of ambient temperature (T_a) on the thermal biology and energy budget in striped hamsters acclimated to cold (5°C), warm (21°C) and hot temperatures (31°C). Thermoneutral zone (TNZ) was 22.5–32.5°C, 25–32.5°C and 30–32.5°C in the cold-, warm- and hot-acclimated hamsters, respectively. The cold acclimation decreased the lower critical temperature and made the TNZ wider, and hot exposure elevated the lower critical temperature, resulting in a narrow TNZ. Within the TNZ, cold-acclimated hamsters showed a significantly higher rate of metabolism and thermogenesis than those acclimated to hot temperature. Digestive enzymes activities, including intestinal sucrase, maltase, L-alanine aminopeptidase-N and leucine aminopeptidase were higher in the cold than in the hot. The changes in metabolic rate and thermogenesis at different temperatures were in parallel with cytochrome c oxidase activity and uncoupling protein 1 gene expression of brown adipose tissue. This suggests that the shift of the lower critical temperature of TNZ is possibly associated with the rate of metabolism and thermogenesis, as well as with the digestive capacity of the gastrointestinal tract at different T_a. The upper critical temperature of TNZ may be independent of the changes in T_a. The changes of lower critical temperature of TNZ are an important strategy in adaption to variations of T_a.

A review of the thermal sensitivity of the mechanics of vertebrate skeletal muscle

Environmental temperature varies spatially and temporally, affecting many aspects of an organism's biology. In ectotherms, variation in environmental temperature can cause parallel changes in skeletal muscle temperature, potentially leading to significant alterations in muscle performance. Endotherms can also undergo meaningful changes in skeletal muscle temperature that can affect muscle performance. Alterations in skeletal muscle temperature can affect contractile performance in both endotherms and ectotherms, changing the rates of force generation and relaxation, shortening velocity, and consequently mechanical power. Such alterations in the mechanical performance of skeletal muscle can in turn affect locomotory performance and behaviour. For instance, as temperature increases, a consequent improvement in limb muscle performance causes some lizard species to be more likely to flee from a potential predator. However, at lower temperatures, they are much more likely to stand their ground, show threatening displays and even bite. There is no consistent pattern in reported effects of temperature on skeletal muscle fatigue resistance. This review focuses on the effects of temperature variation on skeletal muscle performance in vertebrates, and investigates the thermal sensitivity of different mechanical measures of skeletal muscle performance. The plasticity of thermal sensitivity in skeletal muscle performance has been reviewed to investigate the extent to which individuals can acclimate to chronic changes in their thermal environment. The effects of thermal sensitivity of muscle performance are placed in a wider context by relating thermal sensitivity of skeletal muscle performance to aspects of vertebrate species distribution.

Body temperature patterns and rhythmicity in free-ranging subterranean Damaraland mole-rats, Fukomys damarensis

Body temperature (T_b) is an important physiological component that affects endotherms from the cellular to whole organism level, but measurements of T_b in the field have been noticeably skewed towards heterothermic species and seasonal comparisons are largely lacking. Thus, we investigated patterns of T_b patterns in a homeothermic, free-ranging small mammal, the Damaraland mole-rat (Fukomys damarensis) during both the summer and winter. Variation in T_b was significantly greater during winter than summer, and greater among males than females. Interestingly, body mass had only a small effect on variation in T_b and there was no consistent pattern relating ambient temperature to variation in T_b. Generally speaking, it appears that variation in T_b patterns varies between seasons in much the same way as in heterothermic species, just to a lesser degree. Both cosinor analysis and Fast Fourier Transform analysis revealed substantial individual variation in T_b rhythms, even within a single colony. Some individuals had no T_b rhythms, while others appeared to exhibit multiple rhythms. These data corroborate previous laboratory work showing multiplicity of rhythms in mole-rats and suggest the variation seen in the laboratory is a true indicator of the variation seen in the wild.

Developmental trajectories, critical windows and phenotypic alteration during cardio-respiratory development

Embryo-environment interactions affecting cardio-respiratory development in vertebrates have been extensively studied, but an equally extensive conceptual framework for interpreting and interrelating these developmental events has lagged behind. In this review, we consider the conceptual constructs of "developmental plasticity", "critical windows", "developmental trajectory" and related concepts as they apply to both vertebrate and invertebrate development. Developmental plasticity and the related phenomenon of "heterokairy" are considered as a subset of phenotypic plasticity, and examples of cardiovascular, respiratory and metabolic plasticity illustrate the variable outcomes of embryo-environment interactions. The concept of the critical window is revealed to be overarching in cardio-respiratory development, and events originating within a critical window, potentially mitigated by "self-repair" capabilities of the embryo, are shown to result in modified developmental trajectories and, ultimately, modified adult phenotype. Finally, epigenetics, fetal programming and related phenomena are considered in the context of potentially life-long cardio-respiratory phenotypic modification resulting from embryo-environment interactions.

Low levels of physical activity increase metabolic responsiveness to cold in a rat (Rattus fuscipes)

Background

Physical activity modulates expression of metabolic genes and may therefore be a prerequisite for metabolic responses to environmental stimuli. However, the extent to which exercise interacts with environmental conditions to modulate metabolism is unresolved. Hence, we tested the hypothesis that even low levels of physical activity are beneficial by improving metabolic responsiveness to temperatures below the thermal neutral zone, thereby increasing the capacity for substrate oxidation and energy expenditure.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We used wild rats (Rattus fuscipes) to avoid potential effects of breeding on physiological phenotypes. Exercise acclimation (for 30 min/day on 5 days/week for 30 days at 60% of maximal performance) at 22°C increased mRNA concentrations of PGC1α, PPARδ, and NRF-1 in skeletal muscle and brown adipose tissue compared to sedentary animals. Lowering ambient temperature to 12°C caused further increases in relative expression of NRF-1 in skeletal muscle, and of PPARδ of brown adipose tissue. Surprisingly, relative expression of UCP1 increased only when both exercise and cold stimuli were present. Importantly, in sedentary animals cold acclimation (12°C) alone did not change any of the above variables. Similarly, cold alone did not increase maximum capacity for substrate oxidation in mitochondria (cytochrome c oxidase and citrate synthase activities) of either muscle or brown adipose tissue. Animals that exercised regularly had higher exercise induced metabolic rates in colder environments than sedentary rats, and temperature induced metabolic scope was greater in exercised rats.

Conclusions/Significance

Physical activity is a necessary prerequisite for the expression of transcriptional regulators that influence a broad range of physiological functions from energy metabolism to cardiovascular function and nutrient uptake. A sedentary lifestyle leads to decreased daily energy expenditure because of a lack of direct use of energy and a muted metabolic response to ambient temperature, which can be reversed even by low levels of physical activity.