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Haron A, Shinder D, Ruzal M, Druyan S. Post-Hatch Performance of Broilers Following Hypoxic Exposure During Incubation Under Suboptimal Environmental Temperature. Front Physiol 2022; 13:934676. [PMID: 35936895 PMCID: PMC9355520 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.934676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2022] [Accepted: 06/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The modern broiler is selected to exploit its full genetic potential, to sustain a rapid growth rate, and to lower the feed conversion rate (FCR). Recently reported reductions in FCR have been associated with augmented tissue formation at the expense of physiological functions such as thermoregulation. In turn, modern broilers exhibit a relatively low capability to balance energy expenditure under suboptimal ambient temperature. Hypoxic conditions at late incubation stages play a role in reforming metabolic plasticity. This work examined the effect of exposure to 12-h hypoxia (12H; 17% O2) for three consecutive days (from E16 through E18), or continuous hypoxia exposure for 48 h (48H), from E16 through E17, as compared to standard incubation (21% O2) on post-hatch performance of broilers maintained under suboptimal ambient temperatures (cold, hot, and diurnal cyclic ambient temperature). 12H chicks kept under hot ambient temperature had significantly lower body temperature (Tb) as compared to the control chicks. On day 42, both 12H and 48H chicks grown in the cyclic temperature room had significantly lower Tbs than controls. In parallel, from week 4, onward, 12H chicks had a significantly lower FCR than controls, and the 48H chicks demonstrated a lower FCR from week 5 and on. 12H and 48H broilers maintained under diurnal cyclic ambient temperature, exhibited significantly greater relative breast muscle weight, and a similar pattern was found in hypoxic broilers raised under standard and hot ambient temperatures. Hypoxic manipulation affects and create an adaptive bias in allocating metabolic energy between maintenance and growth, thus resulting in improved broiler performance, thermoregulation, and rearing under suboptimal environmental temperature.
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Affiliation(s)
- A. Haron
- The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, Israel
- Institute of Animal Science, Agricultural Research Organization, Volcani Center, Rishon Le Ziyyon, Israel
| | - D. Shinder
- Institute of Animal Science, Agricultural Research Organization, Volcani Center, Rishon Le Ziyyon, Israel
| | - M. Ruzal
- Institute of Animal Science, Agricultural Research Organization, Volcani Center, Rishon Le Ziyyon, Israel
| | - S. Druyan
- Institute of Animal Science, Agricultural Research Organization, Volcani Center, Rishon Le Ziyyon, Israel
- *Correspondence: S. Druyan,
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Haron A, Shinder D, Lokshtanov D, Ruzal M, Druyan S. Effects of hypoxic conditions during the plateau period on pre- and posthatch broiler performance. Poult Sci 2022; 101:101597. [PMID: 34936961 PMCID: PMC8703078 DOI: 10.1016/j.psj.2021.101597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2021] [Revised: 10/31/2021] [Accepted: 11/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Adequate ambient temperature and oxygenation are necessary to maintain normal embryonic development of broilers; however, hypoxia challenge during incubation can aid in improving regulatory plasticity and lead to different phenotypes later in life. This study aimed to examine the effects of moderate hypoxia (O2 17%) during the plateau phase on the embryonic physiological parameters and on posthatch performance (growth rate, feed consumption and feed conversion) up to the age of poultry marketing. The study included examined embryos exposed to O2 17% for 12 h per day (h/d) from E16 through E18 (designated as 12H), or O2 17% continuously, from E16 through E17 (designated as 48H) and a standard incubation control group (21% O2). Physiological and morphological parameters of embryos and hatched chicks were measured. Male Chicks from all 3 treatment groups were raised under recommended temperature regime, and body weight, feed intake and FCR were recorded on a weekly basis. The intermittent hypoxia protocol (12H), allowed embryos to properly adapt to the shortage of oxygen, compensate for the gap in body mass that developed following the first exposure window, and hatch with characteristics similar to those of the control embryos. In contrast, while the 48H embryos were able to adapt to the hypoxic stress, the prolonged exposure prevented them from catching up with both control and 12H embryos. Broilers that were subjected to hypoxia showed hatchling body weights and growth rates similar to those of controls, throughout the entire growth phase. During the fifth wk, lower feed consumption was observed in the 12H and 48H groups and became significantly lower than the control chicks in the sixth wk of growth. Following hypoxia exposure, chicks managed to reach normal body weight with less feed, with the 12H group demonstrating lower and more efficient FCR during the last 2 wk of growth. Broiler embryos reacted to plateau-phase hypoxia challenge with numerous physiological and metabolic modifications. The prudent alterations in metabolism and cardiovascular system during exposure to hypoxia and posthatch, resulted in more efficient energy utilization in broilers, which may have a long-lasting enhancing effect on posthatching thermotolerance and sustainability in chicks reared under sub-optimal environmental conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Haron
- Institute of Animal Science, Agricultural Research Organization, Volcani Center, Bet Dagan 7528809, Israel; The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, Israel
| | - D Shinder
- Institute of Animal Science, Agricultural Research Organization, Volcani Center, Bet Dagan 7528809, Israel
| | - D Lokshtanov
- Institute of Animal Science, Agricultural Research Organization, Volcani Center, Bet Dagan 7528809, Israel
| | - M Ruzal
- Institute of Animal Science, Agricultural Research Organization, Volcani Center, Bet Dagan 7528809, Israel
| | - S Druyan
- Institute of Animal Science, Agricultural Research Organization, Volcani Center, Bet Dagan 7528809, Israel.
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do Amaral-Silva L, Rojas-Antich MC, Dubansky B, Tazawa H, Burggren WW. Embryotoxicity and Physiological Compensation in Chicken Embryos Exposed to Crude Oil. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 2021; 40:2347-2358. [PMID: 33930207 DOI: 10.1002/etc.5105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2021] [Accepted: 04/27/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Terrestrial, marine, or aquatic oil spills can directly or indirectly contaminate bird eggs. We hypothesized that chicken embryos exposed to crude oil can physiologically compensate to mitigate the potentially toxic effect of lower doses of oil. Embryos exposed to 0, 1, 3, or 5 µL of oil on embryonic days 4 and 10 were initially analyzed for mortality. All oil doses decreased day 4 embryo survival, but only the 2 highest oil doses lowered survival when applied on day 10. Thus, day 15 embryos treated with 1, 3, and 5 µL of source oil on day 10 had arterialized blood analyzed. The hematological variables hematocrit, red blood cell concentration ([RBC]), and hemoglobin concentration increased in response to 1 µL, were unchanged by 3 µL, and decreased by 5 µL of oil treatment. No changes occurred in arterialized blood gas variables (partial pressure of O2 [PO2 ], pH, bicarbonate concentration) for 1 and 3 µL embryos, but 5 µL of oil decreased PO2 and caused metabolic acidosis. Increased blood lactate in embryos treated with 3 and 5 µL of oil was correlated with decreased hematocrit and [RBC] and increased body mass, the latter likely reflecting edema. We conclude that embryos in middle development physiologically compensated for negative effects of lower doses of crude oil but that higher doses of oil were harmful to the embryos at all developmental stages. Environ Toxicol Chem 2021;40:2347-2358. © 2021 SETAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lara do Amaral-Silva
- Developmental Integrative Biology, Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Texas, Denton, Texas, USA
- Integrative Thermal Physiology, Department of Animal Morphology and Physiology, São Paulo State University, Jaboticabal, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Maria Carolina Rojas-Antich
- Developmental Integrative Biology, Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Texas, Denton, Texas, USA
| | - Benjamin Dubansky
- Developmental Integrative Biology, Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Texas, Denton, Texas, USA
| | - Hiroshi Tazawa
- Developmental Integrative Biology, Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Texas, Denton, Texas, USA
| | - Warren W Burggren
- Developmental Integrative Biology, Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Texas, Denton, Texas, USA
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Amaral-Silva LD, Gargaglioni LH, Steiner AA, Oliveira MT, Bícego KC. Regulated hypothermia in response to endotoxin in birds. J Physiol 2021; 599:2969-2986. [PMID: 33823064 DOI: 10.1113/jp281385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2021] [Accepted: 03/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
KEY POINTS The costs associated with immune and thermal responses may exceed the benefits to the host during severe inflammation. In this case, regulated hypothermia instead of fever can occur in rodents as a beneficial strategy to conserve energy for vital functions with consequent tissue protection and hypoxia prevention. We tested the hypothesis that this phenomenon is not exclusive to mammals, but extends to the other endothermic group, birds. A decrease in metabolic rate without any failure in mitochondrial respiration, nor oxygen delivery, is the main evidence supporting the regulated nature of endotoxin-induced hypothermia in chicks. Thermolytic mechanisms such as tachypnea and cutaneous vasodilatation can also be recruited to facilitate body temperature decrease under lipopolysaccharide treatment, especially in the cold. Our findings bring a new perspective for evolutionary medicine studies on energy trade-off in host defence because regulated hypothermia may be a phenomenon spread among vertebrates facing a severe immune challenge. ABSTRACT A switch from fever to regulated hypothermia can occur in mammals under circumstances of reduced physiological fitness (e.g. sepsis) to direct energy to defend vital systems. Birds in which the cost to resist a pathogen is additive to the highest metabolic rate and body temperature (Tb ) among vertebrates may also benefit from regulated hypothermia during systemic inflammation. Here, we show that the decrease in Tb observed during an immune challenge in birds is a regulated hypothermia, and not a result of metabolic failure. We investigated O2 consumption (thermogenesis index), ventilation (respiratory heat loss), skin temperature (sensible heat loss) and muscle mitochondrial respiration (thermogenic tissue) during Tb fall in chicken chicks challenged with endotoxin [lipopolysaccharide (LPS)]. Chicks injected with LPS were also tested regarding the capacity to raise O2 consumption to meet an increased demand driven by 2,4-dinitrophenol. LPS decreased Tb and the metabolic rate of chicks without affecting muscle uncoupled, coupled and non-coupled mitochondrial respiration. LPS-challenged chicks were indeed capable of increasing metabolic rate in response to 2,4-dinitrophenol, indicating no O2 delivery limitation. Additionally, chicks did not attempt to prevent Tb from falling during hypothermia but, instead, activated cutaneous and respiratory thermolytic mechanisms, providing an additional cooling force. These data provide the first evidence of the regulated nature of the hypothermic response to endotoxin in birds. Therefore, it changes the current understanding of bird's thermoregulation during severe inflammation, indicating that regulated hypothermia is either a convergent trait for endotherms or a conserved response among vertebrates, which adds a new perspective for evolutionary medicine research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lara do Amaral-Silva
- Department of Animal Morphology and Physiology, São Paulo State University, Jaboticabal, SP, Brazil
| | - Luciane H Gargaglioni
- Department of Animal Morphology and Physiology, São Paulo State University, Jaboticabal, SP, Brazil
| | - Alexandre A Steiner
- Department of Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Marcos T Oliveira
- Department of Technology, São Paulo State University, Jaboticabal, SP, Brazil
| | - Kênia Cardoso Bícego
- Department of Animal Morphology and Physiology, São Paulo State University, Jaboticabal, SP, Brazil
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Cristina-Silva C, Gargaglioni LH, Bícego KC. A thermoregulatory role of the medullary raphe in birds. J Exp Biol 2021; 224:jeb.234344. [PMID: 33758021 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.234344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2020] [Accepted: 03/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The brainstem region medullary raphe modulates non-shivering and shivering thermogenesis and cutaneous vasomotion in rodents. Whether the same scenario occurs in the other endothermic group, i.e. birds, is still unknown. Therefore, we hypothesised that the medullary raphe modulates heat gain and loss thermoeffectors in birds. We investigated the effect of glutamatergic and GABAergic inhibitions in this specific region on body temperature (Tb), oxygen consumption (thermogenesis), ventilation (O2 supply in cold, thermal tachypnea in heat) and heat loss index (cutaneous vasomotion) in one-week-old chicken exposed to neutral (31°C), cold (26°C) and heat (36°C) conditions. Intra-medullary raphe antagonism of NMDA glutamate (AP5; 0.5, 5 mM) and GABAA (bicuculline; 0.05, 0.5 mM) receptors reduced Tb of chicks at 31°C and 26oC, due mainly to an O2 consumption decrease. AP5 transiently increased breathing frequency during cold exposure. At 31°C, heat loss index was higher in the bicuculline and AP5 groups (higher doses) than vehicle at the beginning of the Tb reduction. No treatment affected any variable tested at 36oC. The results suggest that glutamatergic and GABAergic excitatory influences on the medullary raphe of chicks modulate thermogenesis and glutamatergic stimulation prevents tachypnea, without having any role in warmth-defence responses. A double excitation influence on the medullary raphe may provide a protective neural mechanism for supporting thermogenesis during early life, when energy expenditure to support growth and homeothermy is high. This novel demonstration of a thermoregulatory role for the raphe in birds suggests a convergent brainstem neurochemical regulation of body temperature in endotherms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Cristina-Silva
- Department of Animal Morphology and Physiology, College of Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences, São Paulo State University, Jaboticabal, SP, 14884-900, Brazil
- Joint UFSCar-UNESP Graduate Program of Physiological Sciences, Sao Carlos, SP, 13565-905, Brazil
| | - Luciane H Gargaglioni
- Department of Animal Morphology and Physiology, College of Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences, São Paulo State University, Jaboticabal, SP, 14884-900, Brazil
| | - Kênia Cardoso Bícego
- Department of Animal Morphology and Physiology, College of Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences, São Paulo State University, Jaboticabal, SP, 14884-900, Brazil
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Ben-Gigi R, Haron A, Shinder D, Ruzal M, Druyan S. Differential physiological response of slow- and fast-growing broiler lines to hypoxic conditions during chorioallantoic membrane development. Poult Sci 2021; 100:1192-1204. [PMID: 33518077 PMCID: PMC7858093 DOI: 10.1016/j.psj.2020.10.068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2020] [Revised: 10/14/2020] [Accepted: 10/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Ambient conditions during chicken embryogenesis, such as insufficient oxygen or changes in temperature, are expected to cause permanent phenotypic changes and affect their posthatch performance. Decades of genetic selection for high growth rate resulted with various physiological and morphological changes that can affect the broiler fitness under environmental stress. To evaluate the selection effect on responses to environmental challenge during embryonic development, and the long-term implications, we have used a unique genetic line, that was not selected for over 30 yr (since 1986), as control for the modern commercial genetic line. At embryonic day 5 (E5), broiler embryos from these 2 genetic lines were divided into 2 treatments: 1) control; 2) 15% O2 concentration for 12 h/day from E5 through E12 the embryonic period of chorioallantoic membrane formation. Embryos and hatched chicks were characterized for physiological and morphological parameters. Significant differences in relative embryo weight and yolk consumption were found between the 2 lines. The modern line was characterized by a higher metabolic rate and rapid growth, supported by higher hemoglobin levels and hematocrit concentrations, whereas the 1986 line had slower metabolism, lower levels of hematocrit and hemoglobin, higher oxygen volume per 1 g of embryonic tissue indicating higher oxygen availability. Both lines exhibited changes in heart rate, and blood parameters corresponding to cardiovascular system adaptation after hypoxic exposure, seemingly implemented to increase oxygen-carrying capacity to the embryo tissues. Our finding stand in agreement that the genetic selection for high growth rate that led to higher metabolism without a fit of the cardiovascular system, increased the imbalance between oxygen supply and demand.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Ben-Gigi
- Institute of Animal Science, Agricultural Research Organization, Volcani Center, Rishon Le Tsiyon 7528809, Israel; Faculty of Agriculture Food and Environment, The Hebrew University, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - A Haron
- Institute of Animal Science, Agricultural Research Organization, Volcani Center, Rishon Le Tsiyon 7528809, Israel; Faculty of Agriculture Food and Environment, The Hebrew University, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - D Shinder
- Institute of Animal Science, Agricultural Research Organization, Volcani Center, Rishon Le Tsiyon 7528809, Israel
| | - M Ruzal
- Institute of Animal Science, Agricultural Research Organization, Volcani Center, Rishon Le Tsiyon 7528809, Israel
| | - S Druyan
- Institute of Animal Science, Agricultural Research Organization, Volcani Center, Rishon Le Tsiyon 7528809, Israel.
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Cardiorespiratory and thermal responses to hypercapnia in chickens exposed to CO 2 during embryonic development. Respir Physiol Neurobiol 2019; 273:103317. [PMID: 31654812 DOI: 10.1016/j.resp.2019.103317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2019] [Revised: 10/07/2019] [Accepted: 10/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The concentration of CO2 in the environment surrounding the embryo impacts development and may also influence the cardiorespiratory responses after hatching. Therefore, we aimed to evaluate the cardiorespiratory and thermal responses to hypercapnia in chicks that were exposed to CO2 during embryonic development, i.e., incubation. Embryos were incubated without and with a gradual increase in CO2 concentration up to 1 % during the first ten days of incubation. Ten-day-old chicks (males and females) were again acutely exposed to hypercapnia (7 % CO2), or to room air (normocapnia) and pulmonary ventilation, arterial pH and blood gases, arterial blood pressure and heart rate, body temperature (Tb) and oxygen consumption (V⋅O2) were measured. Compared to control animals, male chicks incubated with 1 % CO2 presented an attenuated ventilatory response to hypercapnia (P < 0.05), whereas no difference was found in the hypercapnic ventilatory response in both female chick groups (0 % vs 1 % CO2 incubation). Hypercapnia induced bradycardia in all groups (P < 0.001). The CO2 exposure during incubation did not alter the cardiovascular responses to hypercapnia in post-hatch animals. There were no significant effects of incubation treatment (0 % vs 1 % CO2) or sex in the mean arterial pressure, Tb, and V⋅O2 of animals in normocapnia and hypercapnia. As for the V⋅E/V⋅O2, hypercapnia caused an increase in both groups (P < 0.05), regardless of incubation treatment. In conclusion, among cardiorespiratory and metabolic variables, the ventilatory response to hypercapnia can be attenuated by pre-exposure to 1 % CO2 during embryonic development, especially in male chicks up to 10 days.
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do Amaral-Silva L, Lambertz M, José Zara F, Klein W, Gargaglioni LH, Bícego KC. Parabronchial remodeling in chicks in response to embryonic hypoxia. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019; 222:jeb.197970. [PMID: 31028104 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.197970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2018] [Accepted: 04/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
The embryonic development of parabronchi occurs mainly during the second half of incubation in precocious birds, which makes this phase sensitive to possible morphological modifications induced by O2 supply limitation. Thus, we hypothesized that hypoxia during the embryonic phase of parabronchial development induces morphological changes that remain after hatching. To test this hypothesis, chicken embryos were incubated entirely (21 days) under normoxia or partially under hypoxia (15% O2 during days 12 to 18). Lung structures, including air capillaries, blood capillaries, infundibula, atria, parabronchial lumen, bronchi, blood vessels larger than capillaries and interparabronchial tissue, in 1- and 10-day-old chicks were analyzed using light microscopy-assisted stereology. Tissue barrier and surface area of air capillaries were measured using electron microscopy-assisted stereology, allowing for calculation of the anatomical diffusion factor. Hypoxia increased the relative volumes of air and blood capillaries, structures directly involved in gas exchange, but decreased the relative volumes of atria in both groups of chicks, and the parabronchial lumen in older chicks. Accordingly, the surface area of the air capillaries and the anatomical diffusion factor were increased under hypoxic incubation. Treatment did not alter total lung volume, relative volumes of infundibula, bronchi, blood vessels larger than capillaries, interparabronchial tissue or the tissue barrier of any group. We conclude that hypoxia during the embryonic phase of parabronchial development leads to a morphological remodeling, characterized by increased volume density and respiratory surface area of structures involved in gas exchange at the expense of structures responsible for air conduction in chicks up to 10 days old.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lara do Amaral-Silva
- Department of Animal Morphology and Physiology, College of Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences, São Paulo State University, Unesp. Jaboticabal, São Paulo 14884-900, Brazil.,National Institute of Science and Technology - Comparative Physiology (INCT- Fisiologia Comparada), UNESP-Jaboticabal, São Paulo 14884-900, Brazil
| | - Markus Lambertz
- Institut für Zoologie, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn, 53115 Bonn, Germany.,Sektion Herpetologie, Zoologisches Forschungsmuseum Alexander Koenig, 53113 Bonn, Germany
| | - Fernando José Zara
- Invertebrate Morphology Lab, Department of Applied Biology, IEAMar and CAUNESP College of Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences, São Paulo State University, Unesp. Jaboticabal, São Paulo 14884-900, Brazil
| | - Wilfried Klein
- National Institute of Science and Technology - Comparative Physiology (INCT- Fisiologia Comparada), UNESP-Jaboticabal, São Paulo 14884-900, Brazil.,Department of Biology, School of Philosophy, Sciences and Literature of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 14040-901, Brazil
| | - Luciane Helena Gargaglioni
- Department of Animal Morphology and Physiology, College of Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences, São Paulo State University, Unesp. Jaboticabal, São Paulo 14884-900, Brazil.,National Institute of Science and Technology - Comparative Physiology (INCT- Fisiologia Comparada), UNESP-Jaboticabal, São Paulo 14884-900, Brazil
| | - Kênia Cardoso Bícego
- Department of Animal Morphology and Physiology, College of Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences, São Paulo State University, Unesp. Jaboticabal, São Paulo 14884-900, Brazil .,National Institute of Science and Technology - Comparative Physiology (INCT- Fisiologia Comparada), UNESP-Jaboticabal, São Paulo 14884-900, Brazil
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