Supramolecular aggregates containing lipophilic Gd(III) complexes as contrast agents in MRI

Comprehensive Insights into Medicinal Research on Imidazole-Based Supramolecular Complexes

The electron-rich five-membered aromatic aza-heterocyclic imidazole, which contains two nitrogen atoms, is an important functional fragment widely present in a large number of biomolecules and medicinal drugs; its unique structure is beneficial to easily bind with various inorganic or organic ions and molecules through noncovalent interactions to form a variety of supramolecular complexes with broad medicinal potential, which is being paid an increasing amount of attention regarding more and more contributions to imidazole-based supramolecular complexes for possible medicinal application. This work gives systematical and comprehensive insights into medicinal research on imidazole-based supramolecular complexes, including anticancer, antibacterial, antifungal, antiparasitic, antidiabetic, antihypertensive, and anti-inflammatory aspects as well as ion receptors, imaging agents, and pathologic probes. The new trend of the foreseeable research in the near future toward imidazole-based supramolecular medicinal chemistry is also prospected. It is hoped that this work provides beneficial help for the rational design of imidazole-based drug molecules and supramolecular medicinal agents and more effective diagnostic agents and pathological probes.

Smart Nanosensitizers for Activatable Sono-Photodynamic Immunotherapy of Tumors by Redox-Controlled Disassembly

Tumor-targeted and stimuli-activatable nanosensitizers are highly desirable for cancer theranostics. However, designing smart nanosensitizers with multiple imaging signals and synergistic therapeutic activities switched on is challenging. Herein, we report tumor-targeted and redox-activatable nanosensitizers (1-NPs) for sono-photodynamic immunotherapy of tumors by molecular co-assembly and redox-controlled disassembly. 1-NPs show a high longitudinal relaxivity (r₁ =18.7±0.3 mM^-1  s^-1 ), but "off" dual fluorescence (FL) emission (at 547 and 672 nm), "off" sono-photodynamic therapy and indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 1 (IDO1) inhibition activities. Upon reduction by glutathione (GSH), 1-NPs rapidly disassemble and remotely release small molecules 2-Gd, Zn-PPA-SH and NLG919, concurrently switching on (1) dual FL emission, (2) sono-photodynamic therapy and (3) IDO1 inhibition activities. After systemic injection, 1-NPs are effective for bimodal FL and magnetic resonance (MR) imaging-guided sono-photodynamic immunotherapy of orthotropic breast and brain tumors in mice under combined ultrasound (US) and 671-nm laser irradiation.

Metal Complexes in Diagnosis and Therapy

The use of metal complexes for health and healing has been in use for over the last several millennia and perhaps longer [...].

High Relaxivity with No Coordinated Waters: A Seemingly Paradoxical Behavior of [Gd(DOTP)]5- Embedded in Nanogels

Nanogels (NGs) obtained by electrostatic interactions between chitosan and hyaluronic acid and comprising paramagnetic Gd chelates are gaining increasing attention for their potential application in magnetic resonance bioimaging. Herein, the macrocyclic complexes [Gd(DOTP)]⁵⁻, lacking metal-bound water molecules (q = 0), were confined or used as a cross-linker in this type of NG. Unlike the typical behavior of Gd complexes with q = 0, a remarkable relaxivity value of 78.0 mM^–1 s^–1 was measured at 20 MHz and 298 K, nearly 20 times greater than that found for the free complex. A careful analysis of the relaxation data emphasizes the fundamental role of second sphere water molecules with strong and long-lived hydrogen bonding interactions with the complex. Finally, PEGylated derivatives of nanoparticles were used for the first in vivo magnetic resonance imaging study of this type of NG, revealing a fast renal excretion of paramagnetic complexes after their release from the NGs.

Nanogels incorporating [Gd(DOTP)]⁵⁻ complexes (q = 0) exhibit remarkable relaxivity values, thanks to structured water molecules in the second coordination shell of the metal ion involved in strong H-bonding interactions with the phosphonate groups.

Self-Assembling Metallocomplexes of the Amphiphilic 1,4-Diazabicyclo[2.2.2]octane Derivative as a Platform for the Development of Nonplatinum Anticancer Drugs

New 1-cetyl-4-aza-1-azoniabicyclo[2.2.2]octane bromide complexes with copper(II) bromide and lanthanum(III) nitrate were characterized using dynamic light scattering and transmission electron microscopy, with self-assembly and the morphological behavior elucidated. For the lanthanum(III) nitrate complex, the 3D crystal structure was characterized using X-ray diffractometry. These metallosurfactants were tested as antitumor agents, and a high cytotoxic effect comparable with doxorubicin was revealed against the M-HeLa and A-549 cell lines. Both complexes were 2 times more active toward the MCF-7 cell line than the breast cancer drug tamoxifen. The cytotoxic mechanism of complexes is assumed to be related to the induction of apoptosis through the mitochondrial pathway.

Polymerizable Gd(iii) building blocks for the synthesis of high relaxivity macromolecular MRI contrast agents

A new synthetic strategy for the preparation of macromolecular MRI contrast agents (CAs) is reported. Four gadolinium(iii) complexes bearing either one or two polymerizable methacrylamide groups were synthesized, serving as monomers or crosslinkers for the preparation of water-soluble, polymeric CAs using Reversible Addition-Fragmentation Chain Transfer (RAFT) polymerization. Using this approach, macromolecular CAs were synthesized with different architectures, including linear, hyperbranched polymers and gels. The relaxivities of the polymeric CAs were determined by NMR relaxometry, revealing an up to 5-fold increase in relaxivity (60 MHz, 310 K) for the linear polymers compared with the clinically used CA, Gd-DOTA. Moreover, hyperbranched polymers obtained from Gd(iii) crosslinkers, displayed even higher relaxivities up to 22.8 mM-1 s-1, approximately 8 times higher than that of Gd-DOTA (60 MHz, 310 K). A detailed NMRD study revealed that the enhanced relaxivities of the hyperbranched polymers were obtained by limiting the local motion of the crosslinked Gd(iii) chelate. The versatility of RAFT polymerization of Gd(iii) monomers and crosslinkers opens the doors to more advanced polymeric CAs capable of multimodal, bioresponsive or targeting properties.

Dual-Mode Fluorescence and Magnetic Resonance Imaging by Perylene Diimide-Based Gd-Containing Magnetic Ionic Liquids

Bioimaging plays a key role in the diagnosis/treatment of diseases and in scientific research studies. Compared with single imaging techniques, dual-mode and multimode imaging techniques facilitate high accuracy. In this work, a perylene diimide (PDI)-based Gd-containing magnetic ionic liquid, Per-6-Diimi[Gd(NO₃)₄], is reported for dual-modal imaging, in which a Gd(III) complex was used for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), while PDI was used for fluorescence imaging. Because of the difference in the biological microenvironment, there is a switch between dispersed and aggregated states of Per-6-Diimi[Gd(NO₃)₄] molecules in hydrophobic and hydrophilic media. When it was in the aqueous solution, the intensive π-π interaction of PDI cores made Per-6-Diimi[Gd(NO₃)₄] aggregates to form particles. The paramagnetic nanoparticles ensure prolonging the rotational correlation time, which results in a strong enhancement of MRI with a longitude relaxation coefficient of 14.94 mM^-1 s^-1. In an in vivo MRI experiment, the tumor site is imaged by MRI through the enhanced permeability and retention effect. However, when the molecule is present on the hydrophobic membrane of the cells, the dispersed Per-6-Diimi[Gd(NO₃)₄] showed good fluorescence imaging capabilities due to the high fluorescence quantum yield of PDI. Thus, the fluorescence imaging of cells can be carried out. Moreover, ex vivo fluorescence imaging of organs is performed after MRI. Per-6-Diimi[Gd(NO₃)₄] is enriched in the liver, kidneys, and tumors.

Systematic overview of soft materials as a novel frontier for MRI contrast agents

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a well-known diagnostic technique used to obtain high quality images in a non-invasive manner. In order to increase the contrast between normal and pathological regions in the human body, positive (T1) or negative (T2) contrast agents (CAs) are commonly intravenously administered. The most efficient class of T1-CAs are based on kinetically stable and thermodynamically inert gadolinium complexes. In the last two decades many novel macro- and supramolecular CAs have been proposed. These approaches have been optimized to increase the performance of the CAs in terms of the relaxivity values and to reduce the administered dose, decreasing the toxicity and giving better safety and pharmacokinetic profiles. The improved performances may also allow further information to be gained on the pathological and physiological state of the human body. The goal of this review is to report a systematic overview of the nanostructurated CAs obtained and developed by manipulating soft materials at the nanometer scale. Specifically, our attention is centered on recent examples of fibers, hydrogels and nanogel formulations, that seem particularly promising for overcoming the problematic issues that have recently pushed the European Medicines Agency (EMA) to withdraw linear CAs from the market.

Gd(iii)-nanostructurated Constrast Agents (CAs) for Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) can be designed and developed by manipulating soft material, including fibers, hydrogels and nanogels, in the nanometer scale.

Peptide-Based Soft Hydrogels Modified with Gadolinium Complexes as MRI Contrast Agents

Poly-aromatic peptide sequences are able to self-assemble into a variety of supramolecular aggregates such as fibers, hydrogels, and tree-like multi-branched nanostructures. Due to their biocompatible nature, these peptide nanostructures have been proposed for several applications in biology and nanomedicine (tissue engineering, drug delivery, bioimaging, and fabrication of biosensors). Here we report the synthesis, the structural characterization and the relaxometric behavior of two novel supramolecular diagnostic agents for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) technique. These diagnostic agents are obtained for self-assembly of DTPA(Gd)-PEG8-(FY)3 or DOTA(Gd)-PEG8-(FY)3 peptide conjugates, in which the Gd-complexes are linked at the N-terminus of the PEG8-(FY)3 polymer peptide. This latter was previously found able to form self-supporting and stable soft hydrogels at a concentration of 1.0% wt. Analogously, also DTPA(Gd)-PEG8-(FY)3 and DOTA(Gd)-PEG8-(FY)3 exhibit the trend to gelificate at the same range of concentration. Moreover, the structural characterization points out that peptide (FY)3 moiety keeps its capability to arrange into β-sheet structures with an antiparallel orientation of the β-strands. The high relaxivity value of these nanostructures (~12 mM⁻¹·s⁻¹ at 20 MHz) and the very low in vitro cytotoxicity suggest their potential application as supramolecular diagnostic agents for MRI.

Peptide-based building blocks as structural elements for supramolecular Gd-containing MRI contrast agents

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is one of the most important clinic diagnostic tool used to obtain high-quality body images. The administration of low-molecular-weight Gd complex-based MRI contrast agents (CAs) permits to increase the ¹ H relaxation rate of nearby water molecules, thus modulating signal intensity and contrast enhancement. Even if highly accurate, MRI modality suffers from its low sensitivity. Moreover, low-molecular-weight CAs rapidly equilibrate between the intravascular and extravascular spaces after their administration. In order to improve their sensitivity and limit the extravasation phenomenon, several macromolecular and supramolecular multimeric gadolinium complexes (dendrimers, polymers, carbon nanostructures, micelles, and liposomes) have been designed until now. Because of their biocompatibility, low immunogenicity, low cost, and easy synthetic modification, peptides are attractive building blocks for the fabbrication of novel materials for biomedical applications. We report on the state of the art of supramolecular CAs obtained by self-assembly of three different classes of building blocks containing a peptide sequence, a gadolinium complex, and, if necessary, a third functional portion achieving the organization process.

Amphiphilic Nanoaggregates with Bimodal MRI and Optical Properties Exhibiting Magnetic Field Dependent Switching from Positive to Negative Contrast Enhancement

Mixed micelles based on amphiphilic gadolinium(III)-DOTA and europium(III)-DTPA complexes were synthesized and evaluated for their paramagnetic and optical properties as potential bimodal contrast agents. Amphiphilic folate molecule for targeting the folate receptor protein, which is commonly expressed on the surface of many human cancer cells, was used in the self-assembly process in order to create nanoaggregates with targeting properties. Both targeted and nontargeted nanoaggregates formed monodisperse micelles having distribution maxima of 10 nm. The micelles show characteristic europium(III) emission with quantum yields of 2% and 1.1% for the nontargeted and targeted micelles, respectively. Fluorescence microscopy using excitation at 405 nm and emission at 575-675 nm was employed to visualize the nanoaggregates in cultured HeLa cells. The uptake of folate-targeted and nontargeted micelles is already visible after 5 h of incubation and was characterized with the europium(III) emission, which is clearly observable in the cytoplasm of the cells. The very fast longitudinal relaxivity r₁ of ca. 26 s^-1 mM^-1 per gadolinium(III) ion was observed for both micelles at 60 MHz and 310 K. Upon increasing the magnetic field to 300 MHz, the nanoaggregates exhibited a large switching to transversal relaxivity with r₂ value of ca. 52 s^-1 mM^-1 at 310 K. Theoretical fitting of the ¹H NMRD profiles indicate that the efficient T₁ and T₂ relaxations are sustained by the favorable magnetic and electron-configuration properties of the gadolinium(III) ion, rotational correlation time, and coordinated water molecule. These nanoaggregates could have versatile application as a positive contrast agent at the currently used magnetic imaging field strengths and a negative contrast agent in higher field applications, while at the same time offering the possibility for the loading of hydrophobic therapeutics or targeting molecules.

Peptide-Based Drug-Delivery Systems in Biotechnological Applications: Recent Advances and Perspectives

Peptides of natural and synthetic sources are compounds operating in a wide range of biological interactions. They play a key role in biotechnological applications as both therapeutic and diagnostic tools. They are easily synthesized thanks to solid-phase peptide devices where the amino acid sequence can be exactly selected at molecular levels, by tuning the basic units. Recently, peptides achieved resounding success in drug delivery and in nanomedicine smart applications. These applications are the most significant challenge of recent decades: they can selectively deliver drugs to only pathological tissues whilst saving the other districts of the body. This specific feature allows a reduction in the drug side effects and increases the drug efficacy. In this context, peptide-based aggregates present many advantages, including biocompatibility, high drug loading capacities, chemical diversity, specific targeting, and stimuli responsive drug delivery. A dual behavior is observed: on the one hand they can fulfill a structural and bioactive role. In this review, we focus on the design and the characterization of drug delivery systems using peptide-based carriers; moreover, we will also highlight the peptide ability to self-assemble and to actively address nanosystems toward specific targets.

Macromolecular Crowding May Significantly Affect the Performance of an MRI Contrast Agent: A 1H NMR Spectroscopy, Microimaging, and Fast-Field-Cycling NMR Relaxometry Study

Contrast enhancement agents are often employed in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for clinical diagnosis and biomedical research. However, the current theory on MRI contrast generation does not consider the ubiquitous presence of macromolecular crowders in biological systems, which poses the risk of inaccurate data interpretation and misdiagnosis. To address this issue, herein the macromolecular crowding effects on MRI contrast agent are investigated with the ¹H relaxation rate of water in aqueous solutions of Dotarem with different concentrations of macromolecules. Two representative macromolecular crowder systems are used: polyethylene glycol (with no specific secondary structure) and bovine serum albumin (with compact secondary and tertiary structures). The water ¹H relaxation rates in various solutions are measured in a fixed magnetic field and in variable magnetic fields. The results show significant crowding effects for both crowders. The relaxation rate is proportional to the concentration of the MRI contrast agent but shows conspicuous superlinearity with respect to the concentration of the crowder. The size of polyethylene glycol does not affect the relaxivity of water in Dotarem solutions. The above effects are verified with T₁- and T₂-weighted NMR microimages. These results highlight the importance of the effect of macromolecular crowding on the MRI contrast agent and are valuable for understanding the mechanism of MRI contrast agents and designing new-generation MRI contrast agents.

Supramolecular assemblies based on amphiphilic Mn2+-complexes as high relaxivity MRI probes

The Mn²⁺ complexes of amphiphilic derivatives of EDTA and 1,4-DO2A ligands show a strong increase in relaxivity upon micellar aggregation and human serum albumin binding.

Structural evolution in metallomicroemulsions – the effect of increasing alcohol hydrophobicity

Small-angle neutron scattering and contrast variation has been employed to quantify how a series of alcohols with increasing hydrophobicity exert different abilities to structure a model toluene based metallomicroemulsion – a microemulsion system stabilised with a metallosurfactant.

High Relaxivity Gadolinium-Polydopamine Nanoparticles

This study reports the preparation of a series of gadolinium-polydopamine nanoparticles (GdPD-NPs) with tunable metal loadings. GdPD-NPs are analyzed by nuclear magnetic relaxation dispersion and with a 7-tesla (T) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanner. A relaxivity of 75 and 10.3 mM^-1 s^-1 at 1.4 and 7 T is observed, respectively. Furthermore, superconducting quantum interference device magnetometry is used to study intraparticle magnetic interactions and determine the GdPD-NPs consist of isolated metal ions even at maximum metal loadings. From these data, it is concluded that the observed high relaxivities arise from a high hydration state of the Gd(III) at the particle surface, fast rate of water exchange, and negligible antiferromagnetic coupling between Gd(III) centers throughout the particles. This study highlights design parameters and a robust synthetic approach that aid in the development of this scaffold for T₁ -weighted, high relaxivity MRI contrast agents.

Mapping neuroreceptors with metal-labeled radiopharmaceuticals

The growing epidemiological and economic burden of neurological diseases on society is tremendous. A correct and timely diagnosis can help in lowering the burden and improving the life quality of both the diseased person and the caretaker. Imaging of the brain (neuroimaging) using CT, MRI, and nuclear imaging methods can provide anatomical and functional information. Neuroreceptors are central to neurotransmission and neuromodulation in the CNS. In vivo imaging of receptors in the brain provides powerful tools for the functional study of the central nervous system (CNS) in normal or diseased states. Presently, PET imaging using non-metallic radiotracers dominates the imaging of neuroreceptors. Metal-based probes for SPECT and PET can be economical and logistically easier to use without compromising the information. This review focuses on the development of metallic radiotracers for (99mTc) SPECT and (68Ga) PET along with future directions based on the metallic probes developed for other imaging modalities namely MRI.

Cyclen lanthanide-based micellar structures for application as luminescent [Eu(iii)] and magnetic [Gd(iii)] resonance imaging (MRI) contrast agents

The synthesis of coordinatively unsaturated tetra-substituted 1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane (cyclen) lanthanide complexes is described; these structures, possessing hydrophobic (C12-alkyl) tails and hydrophilic head groups, self-assemble into supramolecular micellar structures in aqueous solution, and hence can be utilised as novel contrast agents for MRI.

Magnetofluorescent micelles incorporating Dy(III)-DOTA as potential bimodal agents for optical and high field magnetic resonance imaging

Dysprosium(iii) was coordinated to four 1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-1,4,7,10-tetraacetic acid (DOTA) bisamide derivatives functionalized with amphiphilic p-dodecylaniline and p-tetradecylaniline in a differing cis- and trans-orientation. The complexes were assembled into mono-disperse micelles having size distribution maxima ranging from 10 to 15 nm and the magnetic and optical properties of the micelles were examined in detail. The micelles show characteristic Dy(iii) emission with quantum yields reaching 0.8%. The transverse relaxivity r2 per Dy(iii) ion at 500 MHz and 310 K reaches maximum values of ca. 20 s(-1) mM(-1) which is a large increase when compared to a value of 0.8 s(-1) mM(-1) observed for Dy(III)-DTPA. The micelles were stable in water when incubated at 37 °C for 1 week and showed no relaxivity decrease when measured in the presence of 4% (w/v) human serum albumin. The efficient T2 relaxation, especially at strong magnetic fields, is sustained by the high magnetic moment of the dysprosium(iii) ion, the coordination of water molecules and long rotational correlation times.

Synthesis of an Amphiphilic Bis-Aqua Gd(OBETA) Complex for the Preparation of High-Relaxivity Supramolecular Magnetic Resonance Imaging Probes

Prompted by the favourable relaxometric, thermodynamic and kinetic properties of the bis-hydrated Gd(OBETA) (OBETA=2,2'-oxybis(ethylamine)-N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid) complex, a novel derivative tailored with an n-hexadecyl chain was synthesised. The amphiphilic gadolinium complex was designed and prepared with the aim of obtaining high relaxivity supramolecular aggregates by self-assembly in micelles and liposomes. Thus, lipidic nanoparticles were prepared and characterised by dynamic light scattering and ¹ H NMR relaxometry. Relaxivity values of up to 48.3 mm^-1  s^-1 (20 MHz and 298 K) were registered in liposomal aggregates. The binding to human serum albumin (HSA), evaluated both in terms of affinity and relaxometric properties of the supramolecular adduct, yielded exceptionally high relaxivity values (71.4 mm^-1  s^-1 at 30 MHz and 298 K).

Assembly of near infra-red emitting upconverting nanoparticles and multiple Gd(III)-chelates as a potential bimodal contrast agent for MRI and optical imaging

Linking multiple paramagnetic gadolinium(III)-chelates based on the 2-[4,7,10-tris(carboxymethyl)-1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododec-1-yl]acetate (DOTA) ligand to the surface of NaGdF4:Yb(3+),Tm(3+) upconverting nanoparticles with an average particle size of 20 nm resulted in an assembly that has favorable properties for bimodal Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and Optical Imaging (OI). An improved synthetic pathway was used to couple the paramagnetic precursor to the nanoparticles. The nanoparticles were rendered water dispersible via citrate capping, leaving one acid group free for amide coupling with the mono-amino precursor of the DOTA ligand. Luminescence spectroscopy measurements have shown that the excitation of the nanoconstruct at 980 nm resulted in intense upconverted emission of thulium(III) at 800 nm. The assembly of several paramagnetic centers on the nanoparticle scaffold reduces the overall tumbling rate, resulting in enhanced longitudinal relaxation times and improved relaxivity. The proton NMRD profiles show a characteristic hump at higher frequencies, which is caused by the slow rotation of the nanoconstruct, resulting in r1 values of 25 mM(-1) s(-1) per gadolinium(III)-ion at 60 MHz and 310 K. This is a significant improvement compared to the Gd-DO3A-ethylamine precursor (4) for which a value of r1 of 3.23 mM(-1) s(-1) was observed under the same conditions. Theoretical fitting by two different approaches showed an increase of τR from 57.3 ps for the Gd-DO3A-ethylamine precursor (4) to 392.0 ps for the nanoconstruct, which is responsible for the overall substantial increase in relaxivity.

Gadolinium(III) Complexes with N-Alkyl-N-methylglucamine Surfactants Incorporated into Liposomes as Potential MRI Contrast Agents

Complexes of gadolinium(III) with N-octanoyl-N-methylglucamine (L8) and N-decanoyl-N-methylglucamine (L10) with 1 : 2 stoichiometry were synthesized and characterized by elemental analysis, electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry (ESI-MS), infrared (IR) spectroscopy, and molar conductivity measurements. The transverse (r 2) and longitudinal (r 1) relaxivity protons were measured at 20 MHz and compared with those of the commercial contrasts. These complexes were incorporated in liposomes, resulting in the increase of the vesicle zeta potential. Both the free and liposome-incorporated gadolinium complexes showed high relaxation effectiveness, compared to commercial contrast agent gadopentetate dimeglumine (Magnevist). The high relaxivity of these complexes was attributed to the molecular rotation that occurs more slowly, because of the elevated molecular weight and incorporation in liposomes. The results establish that these paramagnetic complexes are highly potent contrast agents, making them excellent candidates for various applications in molecular MR imaging.

Incorporation of Naked Peptide Nucleic Acids into Liposomes Leads to Fast and Efficient Delivery

The delivery of peptide nucleic acids (PNAs) to cells is a very challenging task. We report here that a liposomal formulation composed of egg PC/cholesterol/DSPE-PEG2000 can be loaded, according to different encapsulation techniques, with PNA or fluorescent PNA oligomers. PNA loaded liposomes efficiently and quickly promote the uptake of a PNA targeting the microRNA miR-210 in human erythroleukemic K562 cells. By using this innovative delivery system for PNA, down-regulation of miR-210 is achieved at a low PNA concentration.

Magnetofluorescent micellar complexes of terbium(iii) as potential bimodal contrast agents for magnetic resonance and optical imaging

Micellar nano-aggregates containing Tb(iii) have been evaluated as a single lanthanide bimodal contrast agent for magnetic resonance and optical imaging.

GdDOTAGA(C18)2: an efficient amphiphilic Gd(iii) chelate for the preparation of self-assembled high relaxivity MRI nanoprobes

MRI-nanoprobes endowed with improved relaxivity, incorporation stability and in vivo MRI efficiency were prepared using a newly synthesized amphiphilic GdDOTA-like complex.

Silica-based nanoparticles: a versatile tool for the development of efficient imaging agents

In this review a selection of the most recent examples of imaging techniques applied to silica-based NPs for imaging is reported.

A new magnetic resonance imaging contrast agent loaded into poly(lacide-co-glycolide) nanoparticles for long-term detection of tumors

The incorporation of a lipophilic Gd chelate (GdDO3A-C12) in biocompatible PLGA poly(D, L-lactide-co-glycolide) nanoparticles was explored as an approach to increase the relaxivity of contrast agents for magnetic resonance imaging. By nanoprecipitation, it was possible to obtain PEGylated gadolinium nanoparticles (mean diameter of 155 nm) with high Gd loading (1.1 × 10(4) Gd centers per nanoparticle). The corresponding GdDO3AC12 ⊂ NPs nanoparticles exhibited an enhanced relaxivity (up to sixfold greater than DOTAREM® at 40 MHz) because the nanoparticle framework constrained the lipophilic Gd chelate motion and favorably impacted the Gd chelate rotational correlation time. T1-weighted imaging at 3 T on phantoms showed enhanced contrast for the GdDO3AC12 ⊂ NPs. Importantly, Gd chelate leakage was almost nonexistent, which suggested that these GdDO3AC12 ⊂ NPs could be useful for long-term MRI detection.

Redox-triggered self-assembly of gadolinium-based MRI probes for sensing reducing environment

Controlled self-assembly of small molecule gadolinium (Gd) complexes into nanoparticles (GdNPs) is emerging as an effective approach to design activatable magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) probes and amplify the r₁ relaxivity. Herein, we employ a reduction-controlled macrocyclization reaction and self-assembly to develop a redox activated Gd-based MRI probe for sensing a reducing environment. Upon disulfide reduction at physiological conditions, an acyclic contrast agent 1 containing dual Gd-chelates undergoes intramolecular macrocyclization to form rigid and hydrophobic macrocycles, which subsequently self-assemble into GdNPs, resulting in a ∼60% increase in r₁ relaxivity at 0.5 T. Probe 1 has high r₁ relaxivity (up to 34.2 mM^–1 s^–1 per molecule at 0.5 T) upon activation, and also shows a high sensitivity and specificity for MR detection of thiol-containing biomolecules.

MR imaging techniques for nano-pathophysiology and theranostics

The advent of nanoparticle DDSs (drug delivery systems, nano-DDSs) is opening new pathways to understanding physiology and pathophysiology at the nanometer scale. A nano-DDS can be used to deliver higher local concentrations of drugs to a target region and magnify therapeutic effects. However, interstitial cells or fibrosis in intractable tumors, as occurs in pancreatic or scirrhous stomach cancer, tend to impede nanoparticle delivery. Thus, it is critical to optimize the type and size of nanoparticles to reach the target. High-resolution 3D imaging provides a means of "seeing" the nanoparticle distribution and therapeutic effects. We introduce the concept of "nano-pathophysiological imaging" as a strategy for theranostics. The strategy consists of selecting an appropriate nano-DDS and rapidly evaluating drug effects in vivo to guide the next round of therapy. In this article we classify nano-DDSs by component carrier materials and present an overview of the significance of nano-pathophysiological MRI.

Self-assembly triggered by self-assembly: optically active, paramagnetic micelles encapsulated in protein cage nanoparticles

In this contribution, optically active and paramagnetic micelles of the ligand 1,4,7,10-tetraaza-1-(1-carboxymethylundecane)-4,7,10-triacetic acid cyclododecane (DOTAC10) have been incorporated inside capsids of the cowpea chlorotic mottle virus (CCMV) protein through a hierarchical process of self-assembly triggered by self-assembly. The DOTAC10 ligand was used to complex Gd(III), in order to form paramagnetic micelles, as well as to encapsulate an amphiphilic Zn(II) phthalocyanine (ZnPc) dye that optically confirmed the encapsulation of the micelles. The incorporation of ZnPc molecules in the paramagnetic micelles led to high capsid loading of both Gd(III) and ZnPc, as the micelles were stabilized by the amphiphilic dye encapsulation. The resulting protein cage nanoparticles (PCNs) show an improved r1 relaxivity, suggesting the possible use of these nanostructures as contrast agents (CAs) for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Since the encapsulated ZnPc dye also has a potential therapeutic value, the present results represent a first step towards the consecution of fully self-assembled PCNs for multimodal imaging and therapy.