1
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Diaz-Andres A, Tonnelé C, Casanova D. Electronic Couplings for Triplet-Triplet Annihilation Upconversion in Crystal Rubrene. J Chem Theory Comput 2024; 20:4288-4297. [PMID: 38743825 PMCID: PMC11137828 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jctc.4c00185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2024] [Revised: 05/06/2024] [Accepted: 05/06/2024] [Indexed: 05/16/2024]
Abstract
Triplet-triplet annihilation photon upconversion (TTA-UC) is a process able to repackage two low-frequency photons into light of higher energy. This transformation is typically orchestrated by the electronic degrees of freedom within organic compounds possessing suitable singlet and triplet energies and electronic couplings. In this work, we propose a computational protocol for the assessment of electronic couplings crucial to TTA-UC in molecular materials and apply it to the study of crystal rubrene. Our methodology integrates sophisticated yet computationally affordable approaches to quantify couplings in singlet and triplet energy transfer, the binding of triplet pairs, and the fusion to the singlet exciton. Of particular significance is the role played by charge-transfer states along the b-axis of rubrene crystal, acting as both partial quenchers of singlet energy transfer and mediators of triplet fusion. Our calculations identify the π-stacking direction as holding notable triplet energy transfer couplings, consistent with the experimentally observed anisotropic exciton diffusion. Finally, we have characterized the impact of thermally induced structural distortions, revealing their key role in the viability of triplet fusion and singlet fission. We posit that our approaches are transferable to a broad spectrum of organic molecular materials, offering a feasible means to quantify electronic couplings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aitor Diaz-Andres
- Donostia
International Physics Center (DIPC), Donostia 20018, Euskadi, Spain
| | - Claire Tonnelé
- Donostia
International Physics Center (DIPC), Donostia 20018, Euskadi, Spain
- IKERBASQUE,
Basque Foundation for Science, Bilbao 48009, Euskadi, Spain
| | - David Casanova
- Donostia
International Physics Center (DIPC), Donostia 20018, Euskadi, Spain
- IKERBASQUE,
Basque Foundation for Science, Bilbao 48009, Euskadi, Spain
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2
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Wang X, Gao S, Luo Y, Liu X, Tom R, Zhao K, Chang V, Marom N. Computational Discovery of Intermolecular Singlet Fission Materials Using Many-Body Perturbation Theory. THE JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY. C, NANOMATERIALS AND INTERFACES 2024; 128:7841-7864. [PMID: 38774154 PMCID: PMC11103713 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcc.4c01340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2024] [Revised: 04/16/2024] [Accepted: 04/17/2024] [Indexed: 05/24/2024]
Abstract
Intermolecular singlet fission (SF) is the conversion of a photogenerated singlet exciton into two triplet excitons residing on different molecules. SF has the potential to enhance the conversion efficiency of solar cells by harvesting two charge carriers from one high-energy photon, whose surplus energy would otherwise be lost to heat. The development of commercial SF-augmented modules is hindered by the limited selection of molecular crystals that exhibit intermolecular SF in the solid state. Computational exploration may accelerate the discovery of new SF materials. The GW approximation and Bethe-Salpeter equation (GW+BSE) within the framework of many-body perturbation theory is the current state-of-the-art method for calculating the excited-state properties of molecular crystals with periodic boundary conditions. In this Review, we discuss the usage of GW+BSE to assess candidate SF materials as well as its combination with low-cost physical or machine learned models in materials discovery workflows. We demonstrate three successful strategies for the discovery of new SF materials: (i) functionalization of known materials to tune their properties, (ii) finding potential polymorphs with improved crystal packing, and (iii) exploring new classes of materials. In addition, three new candidate SF materials are proposed here, which have not been published previously.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaopeng Wang
- School
of Foundational Education, University of
Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, Qingdao 266113, China
- Qingdao
Institute for Theoretical and Computational Sciences, Institute of
Frontier and Interdisciplinary Science, Shandong University, Qingdao, Shandong 266237, P. R. China
| | - Siyu Gao
- Department
of Materials Science and Engineering, Carnegie
Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States
| | - Yiqun Luo
- Department
of Physics, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States
| | - Xingyu Liu
- Department
of Materials Science and Engineering, Carnegie
Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States
| | - Rithwik Tom
- Department
of Physics, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States
| | - Kaiji Zhao
- Department
of Materials Science and Engineering, Carnegie
Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States
| | - Vincent Chang
- Department
of Materials Science and Engineering, Carnegie
Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States
| | - Noa Marom
- Department
of Materials Science and Engineering, Carnegie
Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States
- Department
of Physics, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States
- Department
of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States
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3
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Schloemer TH, Sanders SN, Narayanan P, Zhou Q, Hu M, Congreve DN. Controlling the durability and optical properties of triplet-triplet annihilation upconversion nanocapsules. NANOSCALE 2023; 15:6880-6889. [PMID: 37000152 DOI: 10.1039/d3nr00067b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Deep penetration of high energy photons by direct irradiation is often not feasible due to absorption and scattering losses, which are generally exacerbated as photon energy increases. Precise generation of high energy photons beneath a surface can circumvent these losses and significantly transform optically controlled processes like photocatalysis or 3D printing. Using triplet-triplet annihilation upconversion (TTA-UC), a nonlinear process, we can locally convert two transmissive low energy photons into one high energy photon. We recently demonstrated the use of nanocapsules for high energy photon generation at depth, with durability within a variety of chemical environments due to the formation of a dense, protective silica shell that prevents content leakage and nanocapsule aggregation. Here, we show the importance of the feed concentrations of the tetraethylorthosilicate (TEOS) monomer and the methoxy poly(ethyleneglycol) silane (PEG-silane) ligand used to synthesize these nanocapsules using spectroscopic and microscopy characterizations. At optimal TEOS and PEG-silane concentrations, minimal nanocapsule leakage can be obtained which maximizes UC photoluminescence. We also spectroscopically study the origin of inefficient upconversion from UCNCs made using sub-optimal conditions to probe how TEOS and PEG-silane concentrations impact the equilibrium between productive shell growth and side product formation, like amorphous silica. Furthermore, this optimized fabrication protocol can be applied to encapsulate multiple TTA-UC systems and other emissive dyes to generate anti-Stokes or Stokes shifted emission, respectively. These results show that simple synthetic controls can be tuned to obtain robust, well-dispersed, bright upconverting nanoparticles for subsequent integration in optically controlled technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tracy H Schloemer
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA.
| | - Samuel N Sanders
- Rowland Institute at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Pournima Narayanan
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA.
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Qi Zhou
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA.
| | - Manchen Hu
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA.
| | - Daniel N Congreve
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA.
- Rowland Institute at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
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4
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Schloemer T, Narayanan P, Zhou Q, Belliveau E, Seitz M, Congreve DN. Nanoengineering Triplet-Triplet Annihilation Upconversion: From Materials to Real-World Applications. ACS NANO 2023; 17:3259-3288. [PMID: 36800310 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.3c00543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Using light to control matter has captured the imagination of scientists for generations, as there is an abundance of photons at our disposal. Yet delivering photons beyond the surface to many photoresponsive systems has proven challenging, particularly at scale, due to light attenuation via absorption and scattering losses. Triplet-triplet annihilation upconversion (TTA-UC), a process which allows for low energy photons to be converted to high energy photons, is poised to overcome these challenges by allowing for precise spatial generation of high energy photons due to its nonlinear nature. With a wide range of sensitizer and annihilator motifs available for TTA-UC, many researchers seek to integrate these materials in solution or solid-state applications. In this Review, we discuss nanoengineering deployment strategies and highlight their uses in recent state-of-the-art examples of TTA-UC integrated in both solution and solid-state applications. Considering both implementation tactics and application-specific requirements, we identify critical needs to push TTA-UC-based applications from an academic curiosity to a scalable technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tracy Schloemer
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Pournima Narayanan
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Qi Zhou
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Emma Belliveau
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Michael Seitz
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Daniel N Congreve
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
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5
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Zhang J, Ruiz-Molina D, Novio F, Roscini C. Water-Stable Upconverting Coordination Polymer Nanoparticles for Transparent Films and Anticounterfeiting Patterns with Air-Stable Upconversion. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2023; 15:8377-8386. [PMID: 36722461 PMCID: PMC9940112 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.2c16354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2022] [Accepted: 01/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Photon upconversion (UC) based on triplet-triplet annihilation is a very promising phenomenon with potential application in several areas, though, due to the intrinsic mechanism, the achievement of diffusion-limited solid materials with air-stable UC is still a challenge. Herein, we report UC coordination polymer nanoparticles (CPNs) combining sensitizer and emitter molecules especially designed with alkyl spacers that promote the amorphous character. Beyond the characteristic constraints of crystalline MOFs, amorphous CPNs facilitate high dye density and flexible ratio tunability. To show the universality of the approach, two types of UC-CPNs are reported, exhibiting highly photostable UC in two different visible spectral regions. Given their nanoscale, narrow size distribution, and good chemical/colloidal stability in water, the CPNs were also successfully printed as anticounterfeiting patterns and used to make highly transparent and photostable films for luminescent solar concentrators, both showing air-stable UC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junda Zhang
- Catalan
Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ICN2), CSIC and BIST Campus UAB, Bellaterra 08193, Barcelona, Spain
- Departament
de Química, Universitat Autònoma
de Barcelona (UAB), Campus
UAB, 08193 Cerdanyola
del Vallès, Spain
| | - Daniel Ruiz-Molina
- Catalan
Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ICN2), CSIC and BIST Campus UAB, Bellaterra 08193, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Fernando Novio
- Catalan
Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ICN2), CSIC and BIST Campus UAB, Bellaterra 08193, Barcelona, Spain
- Departament
de Química, Universitat Autònoma
de Barcelona (UAB), Campus
UAB, 08193 Cerdanyola
del Vallès, Spain
| | - Claudio Roscini
- Catalan
Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ICN2), CSIC and BIST Campus UAB, Bellaterra 08193, Barcelona, Spain
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6
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Tuleushev AZ, Harrison FE, Kozlovskiy AL, Zdorovets MV. Enhancement of Luminescence of PET Films after Swift Heavy Ion Irradiation. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:polym15040910. [PMID: 36850192 PMCID: PMC9966079 DOI: 10.3390/polym15040910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2022] [Revised: 01/13/2023] [Accepted: 02/09/2023] [Indexed: 02/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The novelty of the study is that the ordering that occurs in a PET film under the action of SHI irradiation manifests itself as an increase in the integral intensity of intrinsic luminescence. The Urbach behaviour of the red shift of the absorption edge is used as a baseline for further analysis of experimental optical transmission spectra of PET films irradiated by swift heavy ions (SHI) previously published by the authors. Negative deviations of the experimental spectra from the Urbach baseline in the visible and UV parts of the spectrum are attributed to enhanced by SHI irradiation intrinsic luminescence. The observed dependence of the integral intensity of luminescence of irradiated PET films on the SHI fluence and ion charge provides further confirmation of the presence of SHI-induced ordering of the molecular structure in SHI latent tracks.
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Salla CAM, Farias G, Sturm L, Dechambenoit P, Durola F, Murat A, de Souza B, Bock H, Monkman AP, Bechtold IH. The effect of substituents and molecular aggregation on the room temperature phosphorescence of a twisted π-system. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2023; 25:684-689. [DOI: 10.1039/d2cp04658j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Room temperature phosphorescence of an intrinsically apolar twisted π-system is modulated by polar substituents. Persistent phosphorescence is visible by eye in poder, induced by molecular aggregation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristian A. M. Salla
- Department of Physics, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, 88040-900 Florianópolis, SC, Brazil
| | - Giliandro Farias
- Department of Chemistry, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, 88040-900 Florianópolis, SC, Brazil
| | - Ludmilla Sturm
- Centre de Recherche Paul Pascal, CNRS & Université de Bordeaux, 115, av. Schweitzer, 33600 Pessac, France
| | - Pierre Dechambenoit
- Centre de Recherche Paul Pascal, CNRS & Université de Bordeaux, 115, av. Schweitzer, 33600 Pessac, France
| | - Fabien Durola
- Centre de Recherche Paul Pascal, CNRS & Université de Bordeaux, 115, av. Schweitzer, 33600 Pessac, France
| | - Aydemir Murat
- Department of Physics, Durham University, South Road, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK
- Erzurum Technical University, Department of Fundamental Sciences, Erzurum, Turkey
| | - Bernardo de Souza
- Department of Chemistry, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, 88040-900 Florianópolis, SC, Brazil
| | - Harald Bock
- Centre de Recherche Paul Pascal, CNRS & Université de Bordeaux, 115, av. Schweitzer, 33600 Pessac, France
| | - Andrew P. Monkman
- Department of Physics, Durham University, South Road, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK
| | - Ivan H. Bechtold
- Department of Physics, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, 88040-900 Florianópolis, SC, Brazil
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8
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Ding C, Chen C, Zeng X, Chen H, Zhao Y. Emerging Strategies in Stimuli-Responsive Prodrug Nanosystems for Cancer Therapy. ACS NANO 2022; 16:13513-13553. [PMID: 36048467 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.2c05379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Prodrugs are chemically modified drug molecules that are inactive before administration. After administration, they are converted in situ to parent drugs and induce the mechanism of action. The development of prodrugs has upgraded conventional drug treatments in terms of bioavailability, targeting, and reduced side effects. Especially in cancer therapy, the application of prodrugs has achieved substantial therapeutic effects. From serendipitous discovery in the early stage to functional design with pertinence nowadays, the importance of prodrugs in drug design is self-evident. At present, studying stimuli-responsive activation mechanisms, regulating the stimuli intensity in vivo, and designing nanoscale prodrug formulations are the major strategies to promote the development of prodrugs. In this review, we provide an outlook of recent cutting-edge studies on stimuli-responsive prodrug nanosystems from these three aspects. We also discuss prospects and challenges in the future development of such prodrugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chendi Ding
- Clinical Research Center, Maoming People's Hospital, 101 Weimin Road, Maoming 525000, China
- School of Medicine, Jinan University, 855 Xingye East Road, Guangzhou 510632, China
- School of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, Nanyang Technological University, 21 Nanyang Link, Singapore 637371, Singapore
| | - Chunbo Chen
- Clinical Research Center, Maoming People's Hospital, 101 Weimin Road, Maoming 525000, China
| | - Xiaowei Zeng
- Institute of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences (Shenzhen), Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China
- School of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, Nanyang Technological University, 21 Nanyang Link, Singapore 637371, Singapore
| | - Hongzhong Chen
- Institute of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences (Shenzhen), Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China
- School of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, Nanyang Technological University, 21 Nanyang Link, Singapore 637371, Singapore
| | - Yanli Zhao
- School of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, Nanyang Technological University, 21 Nanyang Link, Singapore 637371, Singapore
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9
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Blanchard AT, Li Z, Duran EC, Scull CE, Hoff JD, Wright KR, Pan V, Walter NG. Ultra-photostable DNA FluoroCubes: Mechanism of Photostability and Compatibility with FRET and Dark Quenching. NANO LETTERS 2022; 22:6235-6244. [PMID: 35881934 PMCID: PMC10080265 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.2c01757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
DNA-based FluoroCubes were recently developed as a solution to photobleaching, a ubiquitous limitation of fluorescence microscopy (Niekamp; ; Stuurman; ; Vale Nature Methods, 2020). FluoroCubes, that is, compact ∼4 × 4 × 5.4 nm3 four-helix bundles coupled to ≤6 fluorescent dyes, remain fluorescent up to ∼50× longer than single dyes and emit up to ∼40× as many photons. The current work answers two important questions about the FluoroCubes. First, what is the mechanism by which photostability is enhanced? Second, are FluoroCubes compatible with Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) and similar techniques? We use single particle photobleaching studies to show that photostability arises through interactions between the fluorophores and the four-helix DNA bundle. Supporting this, we discover that smaller ∼4 × 4 × 2.7 nm3 FluoroCubes also confer ultraphotostability. However, we find that certain dye-dye interactions negatively impact FluoroCube performance. Accordingly, 4-dye FluoroCubes lacking these interactions perform better than 6-dye FluoroCubes. We also demonstrate that FluoroCubes are compatible with FRET and dark quenching applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron T. Blanchard
- Single Molecule Analysis Group, Department of Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 48109, United States
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 48109, United States
- Michigan Society of Fellows, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Zi Li
- Single Molecule Analysis Group, Department of Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 48109, United States
| | - Elizabeth C. Duran
- Single Molecule Analysis Group, Department of Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 48109, United States
| | - Catherine E. Scull
- Single Molecule Analysis Group, Department of Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 48109, United States
| | - J. Damon Hoff
- Single Molecule Analysis in Real-Time (SMART) Center, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA
| | - Keenan R. Wright
- Department of Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 48109, United States
| | - Victor Pan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Emory University and the Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia, 30322
| | - Nils G. Walter
- Single Molecule Analysis Group, Department of Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 48109, United States
- Center for RNA Biomedicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 48109, United States
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10
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Recent Advances in the Photoreactions Triggered by Porphyrin-Based Triplet–Triplet Annihilation Upconversion Systems: Molecular Innovations and Nanoarchitectonics. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23148041. [PMID: 35887385 PMCID: PMC9323209 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23148041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2022] [Revised: 07/18/2022] [Accepted: 07/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Triplet–triplet annihilation upconversion (TTA-UC) is a very promising technology that could be used to convert low-energy photons to high-energy ones and has been proven to be of great value in various areas. Porphyrins have the characteristics of high molar absorbance, can form a complex with different metal ions and a high proportion of triplet states as well as tunable structures, and thus they are important sensitizers for TTA-UC. Porphyrin-based TTA-UC plays a pivotal role in the TTA-UC systems and has been widely used in many fields such as solar cells, sensing and circularly polarized luminescence. In recent years, applications of porphyrin-based TTA-UC systems for photoinduced reactions have emerged, but have been paid little attention. As a consequence, this review paid close attention to the recent advances in the photoreactions triggered by porphyrin-based TTA-UC systems. First of all, the photochemistry of porphyrin-based TTA-UC for chemical transformations, such as photoisomerization, photocatalytic synthesis, photopolymerization, photodegradation and photochemical/photoelectrochemical water splitting, was discussed in detail, which revealed the different mechanisms of TTA-UC and methods with which to carry out reasonable molecular innovations and nanoarchitectonics to solve the existing problems in practical application. Subsequently, photoreactions driven by porphyrin-based TTA-UC for biomedical applications were demonstrated. Finally, the future developments of porphyrin-based TTA-UC systems for photoreactions were briefly discussed.
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11
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Best practice in determining key photophysical parameters in triplet-triplet annihilation photon upconversion. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2022; 21:1143-1158. [PMID: 35441266 DOI: 10.1007/s43630-022-00219-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2022] [Accepted: 03/23/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Triplet-triplet annihilation photon upconversion (TTA-UC) is a process in which low-energy light is transformed into light of higher energy. During the last two decades, it has gained increasing attention due to its potential in, e.g., biological applications and solar energy conversion. The highest efficiencies for TTA-UC systems have been achieved in liquid solution, owing to that several of the intermediate steps require close contact between the interacting species, something that is more easily achieved in diffusion-controlled environments. There is a good understanding of the kinetics dictating the performance in liquid TTA-UC systems, but so far, the community lacks cohesiveness in terms of how several important parameters are best determined experimentally. In this perspective, we discuss and present a "best practice" for the determination of several critical parameters in TTA-UC, namely triplet excited state energies, rate constants for triplet-triplet annihilation ([Formula: see text]), triplet excited-state lifetimes ([Formula: see text]), and excitation threshold intensity ([Formula: see text]). Finally, we introduce a newly developed method by which [Formula: see text], [Formula: see text], and [Formula: see text] may be determined simultaneously using the same set of time-resolved emission measurements. The experiment can be performed with a simple experimental setup, be ran under mild excitation conditions, and entirely circumvents the need for more challenging nanosecond transient absorption measurements, a technique that previously has been required to extract [Formula: see text]. Our hope is that the discussions and methodologies presented herein will aid the photon upconversion community in performing more efficient and manageable experiments while maintaining-and sometimes increasing-the accuracy and validity of the extracted parameters.
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