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Duo Y, Han L, Yang Y, Wang Z, Wang L, Chen J, Xiang Z, Yoon J, Luo G, Tang BZ. Aggregation-Induced Emission Luminogen: Role in Biopsy for Precision Medicine. Chem Rev 2024. [PMID: 39380213 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.4c00244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/10/2024]
Abstract
Biopsy, including tissue and liquid biopsy, offers comprehensive and real-time physiological and pathological information for disease detection, diagnosis, and monitoring. Fluorescent probes are frequently selected to obtain adequate information on pathological processes in a rapid and minimally invasive manner based on their advantages for biopsy. However, conventional fluorescent probes have been found to show aggregation-caused quenching (ACQ) properties, impeding greater progresses in this area. Since the discovery of aggregation-induced emission luminogen (AIEgen) have promoted rapid advancements in molecular bionanomaterials owing to their unique properties, including high quantum yield (QY) and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), etc. This review seeks to present the latest advances in AIEgen-based biofluorescent probes for biopsy in real or artificial samples, and also the key properties of these AIE probes. This review is divided into: (i) tissue biopsy based on smart AIEgens, (ii) blood sample biopsy based on smart AIEgens, (iii) urine sample biopsy based on smart AIEgens, (iv) saliva sample biopsy based on smart AIEgens, (v) biopsy of other liquid samples based on smart AIEgens, and (vi) perspectives and conclusion. This review could provide additional guidance to motivate interest and bolster more innovative ideas for further exploring the applications of various smart AIEgens in precision medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanhong Duo
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Shenzhen People's Hospital, The Second Clinical Medical College, Jinan University, The First Affiliated Hospital, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518020, Guangdong China
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Lei Han
- College of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Qingdao Agricultural University, 700 Changcheng Road, Qingdao 266109, Shandong China
| | - Yaoqiang Yang
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Shenzhen People's Hospital, The Second Clinical Medical College, Jinan University, The First Affiliated Hospital, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518020, Guangdong China
| | - Zhifeng Wang
- Department of Urology, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, Zhengzhou University People's Hospital, Henan University People's Hospital, Zhengzhou, 450003, China
| | - Lirong Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Luminescent Materials and Devices, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Jingyi Chen
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Zhongyuan Xiang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410000, Hunan, China
| | - Juyoung Yoon
- Department of Chemistry and Nanoscience, Ewha Womans University, 52 Ewhayeodae-gil, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul 03760, Korea
| | - Guanghong Luo
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Shenzhen People's Hospital, The Second Clinical Medical College, Jinan University, The First Affiliated Hospital, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518020, Guangdong China
| | - Ben Zhong Tang
- School of Science and Engineering, Shenzhen Institute of Aggregate Science and Technology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen 518172, Guangdong China
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Xu S, Yan KC, Xu ZH, Wang Y, James TD. Fluorescent probes for targeting the Golgi apparatus: design strategies and applications. Chem Soc Rev 2024; 53:7590-7631. [PMID: 38904177 DOI: 10.1039/d3cs00171g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/22/2024]
Abstract
The Golgi apparatus is an essential organelle constructed by the stacking of flattened vesicles, that is widely distributed in eukaryotic cells and is dynamically regulated during cell cycles. It is a central station which is responsible for collecting, processing, sorting, transporting, and secreting some important proteins/enzymes from the endoplasmic reticulum to intra- and extra-cellular destinations. Golgi-specific fluorescent probes provide powerful non-invasive tools for the real-time and in situ visualization of the temporal and spatial fluctuations of bioactive species. Over recent years, more and more Golgi-targeting probes have been developed, which are essential for the evaluation of diseases including cancer. However, when compared with systems that target other important organelles (e.g. lysosomes and mitochondria), Golgi-targeting strategies are still in their infancy, therefore it is important to develop more Golgi-targeting probes. This review systematically summarizes the currently reported Golgi-specific fluorescent probes, and highlights the design strategies, mechanisms, and biological uses of these probes, we have structured the review based on the different targeting groups. In addition, we highlight the future challenges and opportunities in the development of Golgi-specific imaging agents and therapeutic systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silin Xu
- Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing and Detection, Xuchang University, 461000, P. R. China.
| | - Kai-Cheng Yan
- Department of Chemistry, University of Bath, Bath, BA2 7AY, UK.
| | - Zhi-Hong Xu
- Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing and Detection, Xuchang University, 461000, P. R. China.
- College of Chemical and Materials Engineering, Xuchang University, Xuchang, 461000, P. R. China
| | - Yuan Wang
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Henan Key Laboratory of Coal Green Conversion, Henan Polytechnic University, Jiaozuo 454000, P. R. China.
| | - Tony D James
- Department of Chemistry, University of Bath, Bath, BA2 7AY, UK.
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang 453007, P. R. China
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3
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Li H, Bai J, Chen Y, Du C, Chen M, Wang J. Achieving Cross Time-Domain Multiplexed Signal Cascade and Cancer Exosomes Identification by Bridging Long Lifetime Phosphor to NIR-II Lanthanide Energy Transfer. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2024; 20:e2309955. [PMID: 38415899 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202309955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2023] [Revised: 02/03/2024] [Indexed: 02/29/2024]
Abstract
Designing lanthanide luminescence lifetime sensors in the second near-infrared (NIR-II) window holds great potentials for physiological studies. However, the single lifetime signal is confined to one or two orders of magnitude of signal variation, which limits the sensitivity of lifetime probes. In this study, a lifetime cascade system, i.e., ZGO:Mn, Eu-DNA-1/TCPP-PEI70K@Yb-AptEpCAM, with a variety of signals (τm, τn, τµ, τm/τn and τm/τµ) is constructed for exosome identification using time-domain multiplexing. The sensitized ligand TCPP acts as both target-modulated switch and a bridge for connecting long lifetime ZGO:Mn, Eu-DNA-1 emitter to lanthanide Yb3+. This drives successive dual-path energy transfer and forms two D(donor)-A(acceptor) pairs. The lifetime variation is dominantly modulated by arranging TCPP as energy intermediate relay to covert milliseconds to nanoseconds to microseconds. It enables a broad lifetime range of six orders of magnitude. The presence of exosome specifically recognizes aptamers on TCPP-PEI70K@Yb-AptEpCAM to impede D-A pairs and reverse multiplexed response signals of the lifetime cascade system. The ratio lifetime signals τm/τn and τm/τµ achieve prominent exosome quantification and exosome type differentiation attributed to signal amplification. The cascade system relying on lifetime criteria can realize precise quantization and provide an effective strategy for subsequent physiological study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haiyan Li
- Research Center for Analytical Sciences, Department of Chemistry, College of Sciences, Northeastern University, Shenyang, 110819, China
| | - Junjie Bai
- Research Center for Analytical Sciences, Department of Chemistry, College of Sciences, Northeastern University, Shenyang, 110819, China
| | - Yafei Chen
- Research Center for Analytical Sciences, Department of Chemistry, College of Sciences, Northeastern University, Shenyang, 110819, China
| | - Cheng Du
- Department of Oncology, General Hospital of Northern Theater Command, Shenyang, 110819, China
| | - Mingli Chen
- Research Center for Analytical Sciences, Department of Chemistry, College of Sciences, Northeastern University, Shenyang, 110819, China
- Analytical and Testing Center, Northeastern University, Shenyang, 110819, China
| | - Jianhua Wang
- Research Center for Analytical Sciences, Department of Chemistry, College of Sciences, Northeastern University, Shenyang, 110819, China
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Liu HJ, Zhu MS, Zhang G, Sun R, Xu YJ, Ge JF. Viscosity probes towards different organelles with red emission based on an identical hemicyanine structure. Analyst 2023; 148:4463-4469. [PMID: 37565801 DOI: 10.1039/d3an00550j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/12/2023]
Abstract
A series of viscosity probes targeting different organelles were obtained using a single hemicyanine dye as the matrix structure. Specifically, probes 1a-d were obtained by introducing four amines (6-amino-2H-chromen-2-one, N-(2-aminoethyl)-4-methylbenzenesulfonamide, dodecan-1-amine and N,N diphenylbenzene-1,4-diamine) into the indole hemicyanine dye of the carboxylic acid with a D-π-A structure. Their maximum absorption wavelengths were in the range 570-586 nm and they had relatively large molar absorption coefficients, while their maximum emission wavelengths in the red light region were in the range 596-611 nm. Moreover, their fluorescence intensity in glycerol was 35-184 times higher than that in phosphate buffer solution (PBS). The lg(Fl) and lg η of probes 1a-d showed good linearity with high correlation coefficients according to the Förster-Hoffman equation. In addition, cell staining experiments demonstrated that 1a-c could target lysosomes, endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria, respectively. They could also undergo viscosity-detectable changes in the corresponding organelles under the action of the corresponding ion carriers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong-Jiao Liu
- College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Material Science, Soochow University, 199 Ren'Ai Road, Suzhou 215123, China.
| | - Ming-Sen Zhu
- College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Material Science, Soochow University, 199 Ren'Ai Road, Suzhou 215123, China.
| | - Gang Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Protection, School of Radiation Medicine and Protection and Collaborative Innovation Center of Radiation Medicine of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Ru Sun
- College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Material Science, Soochow University, 199 Ren'Ai Road, Suzhou 215123, China.
| | - Yu-Jie Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Protection, School of Radiation Medicine and Protection and Collaborative Innovation Center of Radiation Medicine of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Jian-Feng Ge
- College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Material Science, Soochow University, 199 Ren'Ai Road, Suzhou 215123, China.
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Medical Optics, Suzhou Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou 215163, China
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Zhai R, Fang B, Lai Y, Peng B, Bai H, Liu X, Li L, Huang W. Small-molecule fluorogenic probes for mitochondrial nanoscale imaging. Chem Soc Rev 2023; 52:942-972. [PMID: 36514947 DOI: 10.1039/d2cs00562j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Mitochondria are inextricably linked to the development of diseases and cell metabolism disorders. Super-resolution imaging (SRI) is crucial in enhancing our understanding of mitochondrial ultrafine structures and functions. In addition to high-precision instruments, super-resolution microscopy relies heavily on fluorescent materials with unique photophysical properties. Small-molecule fluorogenic probes (SMFPs) have excellent properties that make them ideal for mitochondrial SRI. This paper summarizes recent advances in the field of SMFPs, with a focus on the chemical and spectroscopic properties required for mitochondrial SRI. Finally, we discuss future challenges in this field, including the design principles of SMFPs and nanoscopic techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rongxiu Zhai
- Frontiers Science Center for Flexible Electronics, Xi'an Institute of Flexible Electronics (IFE) and Xi'an Institute of Biomedical Materials & Engineering (IBME), Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, China.
| | - Bin Fang
- Frontiers Science Center for Flexible Electronics, Xi'an Institute of Flexible Electronics (IFE) and Xi'an Institute of Biomedical Materials & Engineering (IBME), Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, China. .,School of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern Polytechnical University, 127 West Youyi Road, Xi'an 710072, China
| | - Yaqi Lai
- Frontiers Science Center for Flexible Electronics, Xi'an Institute of Flexible Electronics (IFE) and Xi'an Institute of Biomedical Materials & Engineering (IBME), Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, China.
| | - Bo Peng
- Frontiers Science Center for Flexible Electronics, Xi'an Institute of Flexible Electronics (IFE) and Xi'an Institute of Biomedical Materials & Engineering (IBME), Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, China.
| | - Hua Bai
- Frontiers Science Center for Flexible Electronics, Xi'an Institute of Flexible Electronics (IFE) and Xi'an Institute of Biomedical Materials & Engineering (IBME), Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, China.
| | - Xiaowang Liu
- Frontiers Science Center for Flexible Electronics, Xi'an Institute of Flexible Electronics (IFE) and Xi'an Institute of Biomedical Materials & Engineering (IBME), Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, China.
| | - Lin Li
- Frontiers Science Center for Flexible Electronics, Xi'an Institute of Flexible Electronics (IFE) and Xi'an Institute of Biomedical Materials & Engineering (IBME), Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, China. .,The Institute of Flexible Electronics (IFE, Future Technologies), Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, Fujian, China
| | - Wei Huang
- Frontiers Science Center for Flexible Electronics, Xi'an Institute of Flexible Electronics (IFE) and Xi'an Institute of Biomedical Materials & Engineering (IBME), Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, China. .,The Institute of Flexible Electronics (IFE, Future Technologies), Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, Fujian, China
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Duo Y, Luo G, Zhang W, Wang R, Xiao GG, Li Z, Li X, Chen M, Yoon J, Tang BZ. Noncancerous disease-targeting AIEgens. Chem Soc Rev 2023; 52:1024-1067. [PMID: 36602333 DOI: 10.1039/d2cs00610c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Noncancerous diseases include a wide plethora of medical conditions beyond cancer and are a major cause of mortality around the world. Despite progresses in clinical research, many puzzles about these diseases remain unanswered, and new therapies are continuously being sought. The evolution of bio-nanomedicine has enabled huge advancements in biosensing, diagnosis, bioimaging, and therapeutics. The recent development of aggregation-induced emission luminogens (AIEgens) has provided an impetus to the field of molecular bionanomaterials. Following aggregation, AIEgens show strong emission, overcoming the problems associated with the aggregation-caused quenching (ACQ) effect. They also have other unique properties, including low background interferences, high signal-to-noise ratios, photostability, and excellent biocompatibility, along with activatable aggregation-enhanced theranostic effects, which help them achieve excellent therapeutic effects as an one-for-all multimodal theranostic platform. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the overall progresses in AIEgen-based nanoplatforms for the detection, diagnosis, bioimaging, and bioimaging-guided treatment of noncancerous diseases. In addition, it details future perspectives and the potential clinical applications of these AIEgens in noncancerous diseases are also proposed. This review hopes to motivate further interest in this topic and promote ideation for the further exploration of more advanced AIEgens in a broad range of biomedical and clinical applications in patients with noncancerous diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanhong Duo
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Shenzhen People's Hospital (The Second Clinical Medical College, Jinan University, The First Affiliated Hospital, Southern University of Science and Technology), Shenzhen, 518020, Guangdong, China. .,Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology (MTC), Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Guanghong Luo
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Shenzhen People's Hospital (The Second Clinical Medical College, Jinan University, The First Affiliated Hospital, Southern University of Science and Technology), Shenzhen, 518020, Guangdong, China. .,Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology (MTC), Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden. .,School of Medicine, Life and Health Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen, Shenzhen, 518172, Guangdong, China
| | - Wentao Zhang
- Department of Orthopedics, The Eighth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-Sen University, Shenzhen, 518033, Guangdong, China
| | - Renzhi Wang
- School of Medicine, Life and Health Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen, Shenzhen, 518172, Guangdong, China
| | - Gary Guishan Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Fine Chemicals, Department of Pharmacology, School of Chemical Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, China
| | - Zihuang Li
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Shenzhen People's Hospital (The Second Clinical Medical College, Jinan University, The First Affiliated Hospital, Southern University of Science and Technology), Shenzhen, 518020, Guangdong, China.
| | - Xianming Li
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Shenzhen People's Hospital (The Second Clinical Medical College, Jinan University, The First Affiliated Hospital, Southern University of Science and Technology), Shenzhen, 518020, Guangdong, China.
| | - Meili Chen
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Shenzhen People's Hospital (The Second Clinical Medical College, Jinan University, The First Affiliated Hospital, Southern University of Science and Technology), Shenzhen, 518020, Guangdong, China.
| | - Juyoung Yoon
- Department of Chemistry and Nanoscience, Ewha Womans University, 52 Ewhayeodae-gil, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 03760, Korea.
| | - Ben Zhong Tang
- Shenzhen Institute of Aggregate Science and Technology, School of Science and Engineering, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen, Shenzhen, 518172, Guangdong, China.
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Bodalal Z, Katz S, Shi H, Beets-Tan R. "Advances in cancer imaging and technology"-special collection -introductory Editorial. BJR Open 2022; 4:20229003. [PMID: 38525165 PMCID: PMC10959000 DOI: 10.1259/bjro.20229003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | - Sharyn Katz
- Department of Radiology, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, USA
| | - Haibin Shi
- Center for Molecular Imaging and Nuclear Medicine, School of Radiation Medicine and Protection, Medical College of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
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Ma L, Wang Y, Wang X, Zhu Q, Wang Y, Li L, Cheng HB, Zhang J, Liang XJ. Transition metal complex-based smart AIEgens explored for cancer diagnosis and theranostics. Coord Chem Rev 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ccr.2022.214822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Cheng Y, Clark AE, Zhou J, He T, Li Y, Borum RM, Creyer MN, Xu M, Jin Z, Zhou J, Yim W, Wu Z, Fajtová P, O’Donoghue AJ, Carlin AF, Jokerst JV. Protease-Responsive Peptide-Conjugated Mitochondrial-Targeting AIEgens for Selective Imaging and Inhibition of SARS-CoV-2-Infected Cells. ACS NANO 2022; 16:12305-12317. [PMID: 35878004 PMCID: PMC9344892 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.2c03219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2022] [Accepted: 07/11/2022] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a serious threat to human health and lacks an effective treatment. There is an urgent need for both real-time tracking and precise treatment of the SARS-CoV-2-infected cells to mitigate and ultimately prevent viral transmission. However, selective triggering and tracking of the therapeutic process in the infected cells remains challenging. Here, we report a main protease (Mpro)-responsive, mitochondrial-targeting, and modular-peptide-conjugated probe (PSGMR) for selective imaging and inhibition of SARS-CoV-2-infected cells via enzyme-instructed self-assembly and aggregation-induced emission (AIE) effect. The amphiphilic PSGMR was constructed with tunable structure and responsive efficiency and validated with recombinant proteins, cells transfected with Mpro plasmid or infected by SARS-CoV-2, and a Mpro inhibitor. By rational construction of AIE luminogen (AIEgen) with modular peptides and Mpro, we verified that the cleavage of PSGMR yielded gradual aggregation with bright fluorescence and enhanced cytotoxicity to induce mitochondrial interference of the infected cells. This strategy may have value for selective detection and treatment of SARS-CoV-2-infected cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong Cheng
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Alex E. Clark
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Jiajing Zhou
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Tengyu He
- Materials Science and Engineering Program, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Yi Li
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Raina M. Borum
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Matthew N. Creyer
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Ming Xu
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Zhicheng Jin
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Jingcheng Zhou
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Wonjun Yim
- Materials Science and Engineering Program, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Zhuohong Wu
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Pavla Fajtová
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Anthony J. O’Donoghue
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Aaron F. Carlin
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Jesse V. Jokerst
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
- Materials Science and Engineering Program, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
- Department of Radiology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
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