1
|
Yumura S. Wound Repair of the Cell Membrane: Lessons from Dictyostelium Cells. Cells 2024; 13:341. [PMID: 38391954 PMCID: PMC10886852 DOI: 10.3390/cells13040341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2023] [Revised: 01/30/2024] [Accepted: 02/08/2024] [Indexed: 02/24/2024] Open
Abstract
The cell membrane is frequently subjected to damage, either through physical or chemical means. The swift restoration of the cell membrane's integrity is crucial to prevent the leakage of intracellular materials and the uncontrolled influx of extracellular ions. Consequently, wound repair plays a vital role in cell survival, akin to the importance of DNA repair. The mechanisms involved in wound repair encompass a series of events, including ion influx, membrane patch formation, endocytosis, exocytosis, recruitment of the actin cytoskeleton, and the elimination of damaged membrane sections. Despite the absence of a universally accepted general model, diverse molecular models have been proposed for wound repair in different organisms. Traditional wound methods not only damage the cell membrane but also impact intracellular structures, including the underlying cortical actin networks, microtubules, and organelles. In contrast, the more recent improved laserporation selectively targets the cell membrane. Studies on Dictyostelium cells utilizing this method have introduced a novel perspective on the wound repair mechanism. This review commences by detailing methods for inducing wounds and subsequently reviews recent developments in the field.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shigehiko Yumura
- Graduate School of Sciences and Technology for Innovation, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi 753-8511, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Cheng CY, Hernández J, Turkewitz AP. VPS8D, a CORVET subunit, is required to maintain the contractile vacuole complex in Tetrahymena thermophila. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.11.07.566071. [PMID: 37986963 PMCID: PMC10659352 DOI: 10.1101/2023.11.07.566071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2023]
Abstract
Contractile vacuole complexes (CVCs) are complex osmoregulatory organelles, with vesicular (bladder) and tubular (spongiome) subcompartments. The mechanisms that underlie their formation and maintenance within the eukaryotic endomembrane network are poorly understood. In the Ciliate Tetrahymena thermophila, six differentiated CORVETs (class C core vacuole/endosome tethering complexes), with Vps8 subunits designated A-F, are likely to direct endosomal trafficking. Vps8Dp localizes to both bladder and spongiome. We show by inducible knockdown that VPS8D is essential to CVC organization and function. VPS8D knockdown increased susceptibility to osmotic shock, tolerated in the wildtype but triggering irreversible lethal swelling in the mutant. The knockdown rapidly triggered contraction of the spongiome and lengthened the period of the bladder contractile cycle. More prolonged knockdown resulted in disassembly of both the spongiome and bladder, and dispersal of proteins associated with those compartments. In stressed cells where the normally singular bladder is replaced by numerous vesicles bearing bladder markers, Vps8Dp concentrated conspicuously at long-lived inter-vesicle contact sites, consistent with tethering activity. Similarly, Vps8Dp in cell-free preparations accumulated at junctions formed after vacuoles came into close contact. Also consistent with roles for Vps8Dp in tethering and/or fusion were the emergence in knockdown cells of multiple vacuole-related structures, replacing the single bladder.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chao-Yin Cheng
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Cell Biology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Josefina Hernández
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Cell Biology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Aaron P. Turkewitz
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Cell Biology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Jimenez V, Miranda K, Ingrid A. The old and the new about the contractile vacuole of Trypanosoma cruzi. J Eukaryot Microbiol 2022; 69:e12939. [PMID: 35916682 PMCID: PMC11178379 DOI: 10.1111/jeu.12939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2022] [Revised: 07/27/2022] [Accepted: 07/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Osmoregulation is a conserved cellular process required for the survival of all organisms. In protists, the need for robust compensatory mechanisms that can maintain cell volume and tonicity within physiological range is even more relevant, as their life cycles are often completed in different environments. Trypanosoma cruzi, the protozoan pathogen responsible for Chagas disease, is transmitted by an insect vector to multiple types of mammalian hosts. The contractile vacuole complex (CVC) is an organelle that senses and compensates osmotic changes in the parasites, ensuring their survival upon ionic and osmotic challenges. Recent work shows that the contractile vacuole is also a key component of the secretory and endocytic pathways, regulating the selective targeting of surface proteins during differentiation. Here we summarize our current knowledge of the mechanisms involved in the osmoregulatory processes that take place in the vacuole, and we explore the new and exciting functions of this organelle in cell trafficking and signaling.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Veronica Jimenez
- Department of Biological Science, College of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, California State University Fullerton, Fullerton, California, USA
| | - Kildare Miranda
- Laboratorio de Ultraestrutura Celular Hertha Meyer, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- Centro Nacional de Biologia Estrutural e Bioimagem, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Augusto Ingrid
- Department of Biological Science, College of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, California State University Fullerton, Fullerton, California, USA
- Laboratorio de Ultraestrutura Celular Hertha Meyer, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Dynamics of Actin Cytoskeleton and Their Signaling Pathways during Cellular Wound Repair. Cells 2022; 11:cells11193166. [PMID: 36231128 PMCID: PMC9564287 DOI: 10.3390/cells11193166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2022] [Revised: 09/27/2022] [Accepted: 10/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The repair of wounded cell membranes is essential for cell survival. Upon wounding, actin transiently accumulates at the wound site. The loss of actin accumulation leads to cell death. The mechanism by which actin accumulates at the wound site, the types of actin-related proteins participating in the actin remodeling, and their signaling pathways are unclear. We firstly examined how actin accumulates at a wound site in Dictyostelium cells. Actin assembled de novo at the wound site, independent of cortical flow. Next, we searched for actin- and signal-related proteins targeting the wound site. Fourteen of the examined proteins transiently accumulated at different times. Thirdly, we performed functional analyses using gene knockout mutants or specific inhibitors. Rac, WASP, formin, the Arp2/3 complex, profilin, and coronin contribute to the actin dynamics. Finally, we found that multiple signaling pathways related to TORC2, the Elmo/Doc complex, PIP2-derived products, PLA2, and calmodulin are involved in the actin dynamics for wound repair.
Collapse
|
5
|
Allan CY, Fisher PR. The Dictyostelium Model for Mucolipidosis Type IV. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:741967. [PMID: 35493081 PMCID: PMC9043695 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.741967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2021] [Accepted: 03/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Mucolipidosis type IV, a devastating neurological lysosomal disease linked to mutations in the transient receptor potential channel mucolipin 1, TRPML1, a calcium permeable channel in the membranes of vesicles in endolysosomal system. TRPML1 function is still being elucidated and a better understanding of the molecular pathogenesis of Mucolipidosis type IV, may facilitate development of potential treatments. We have created a model to study mucolipin function in the eukaryotic slime mould Dictyostelium discoideum by altering expression of its single mucolipin homologue, mcln. We show that in Dictyostelium mucolipin overexpression contributes significantly to global chemotactic calcium responses in vegetative and differentiated cells. Knockdown of mucolipin also enhances calcium responses in vegetative cells but does not affect responses in 6–7 h developed cells, suggesting that in developed cells mucolipin may help regulate local calcium signals rather than global calcium waves. We found that both knocking down and overexpressing mucolipin often, but not always, presented the same phenotypes. Altering mucolipin expression levels caused an accumulation or increased acidification of Lysosensor Blue stained vesicles in vegetative cells. Nutrient uptake by phagocytosis and macropinocytosis were increased but growth rates were not, suggesting defects in catabolism. Both increasing and decreasing mucolipin expression caused the formation of smaller slugs and larger numbers of fruiting bodies during multicellular development, suggesting that mucolipin is involved in initiation of aggregation centers. The fruiting bodies that formed from these smaller aggregates had proportionately larger basal discs and thickened stalks, consistent with a regulatory role for mucolipin-dependent Ca2+ signalling in the autophagic cell death pathways involved in stalk and basal disk differentiation in Dictyostelium. Thus, we have provided evidence that mucolipin contributes to chemotactic calcium signalling and that Dictyostelium is a useful model to study the molecular mechanisms involved in the cytopathogenesis of Mucolipidosis type IV.
Collapse
|
6
|
Chang FS, Wang Y, Dmitriev P, Gross J, Galione A, Pears C. A two-pore channel protein required for regulating mTORC1 activity on starvation. BMC Biol 2020; 18:8. [PMID: 31969153 PMCID: PMC6977259 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-019-0735-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2019] [Accepted: 12/20/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Two-pore channels (TPCs) release Ca2+ from acidic intracellular stores and are implicated in a number of diseases, but their role in development is unclear. The social amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum proliferates as single cells that aggregate to form a multicellular organism on starvation. Starvation is sensed by the mTORC1 complex which, like TPC proteins, is found on acidic vesicles. Here, we address the role of TPCs in development and under starvation. RESULTS We report that disruption of the gene encoding the single Dictyostelium TPC protein, TPC2, leads to a delay in early development and prolonged growth in culture with delayed expression of early developmental genes, although a rapid starvation-induced increase in autophagy is still apparent. Ca2+ signals induced by extracellular cAMP are delayed in developing tpc2- cells, and aggregation shows increased sensitivity to weak bases, consistent with reduced acidity of the vesicles. In mammalian cells, the mTORC1 protein kinase has been proposed to suppress TPC channel opening. Here, we show a reciprocal effect as tpc2- cells show an increased level of phosphorylation of an mTORC1 substrate, 4E-BP1. mTORC1 inhibition reverses the prolonged growth and increases the efficiency of aggregation of tpc2- cells. CONCLUSION TPC2 is required for efficient growth development transition in Dictyostelium and acts through modulation of mTORC1 activity revealing a novel mode of regulation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fu-Sheng Chang
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QU, UK
| | - Yuntao Wang
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QU, UK
| | - Phillip Dmitriev
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QU, UK
| | - Julian Gross
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Oxford, Mansfield Road, Oxford, OX1 3QT, UK
| | - Antony Galione
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Oxford, Mansfield Road, Oxford, OX1 3QT, UK
| | - Catherine Pears
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QU, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Pervin MS, Itoh G, Talukder MSU, Fujimoto K, Morimoto YV, Tanaka M, Ueda M, Yumura S. A study of wound repair in Dictyostelium cells by using novel laserporation. Sci Rep 2018; 8:7969. [PMID: 29789591 PMCID: PMC5964096 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-26337-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2018] [Accepted: 05/10/2018] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
We examined the mechanism of cell membrane repair in Dictyostelium cells by using a novel laser-based cell poration method. The dynamics of wound pores opening and closing were characterized by live imaging of fluorescent cell membrane proteins, influx of fluorescent dye, and Ca2+ imaging. The wound closed within 2-4 sec, depending on the wound size. Cells could tolerate a wound size of less than 2.0 µm. In the absence of Ca2+ in the external medium, the wound pore did not close and cells ruptured. The release of Ca2+ from intracellular stores also contributed to the elevation of cytoplasmic Ca2+ but not to wound repair. Annexin C1 immediately accumulated at the wound site depending on the external Ca2+ concentration, and annexin C1 knockout cells had a defect in wound repair, but it was not essential. Dictyostelium cells were able to respond to multiple repeated wounds with the same time courses, in contrast to previous reports showing that the first wound accelerates the second wound repair in fibroblasts.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mst Shaela Pervin
- Department of Functional Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Medicine, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi, 753-8512, Japan
| | - Go Itoh
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Biochemistry, Akita University Graduate School of Medicine, Akita, 010-8543, Japan
| | - Md Shahabe Uddin Talukder
- Department of Functional Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Medicine, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi, 753-8512, Japan.,Institute of Food and Radiation Biology, Atomic Energy Research Establishment, Savar, GPO Box 3787, Dhaka, 1000, Bangladesh
| | - Koushiro Fujimoto
- Department of Functional Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Medicine, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi, 753-8512, Japan
| | - Yusuke V Morimoto
- Department of Bioscience and Bioinformatics, Faculty of Computer Science and Systems Engineering, Kyushu Institute of Technology, 680-4 Kawazu, Iizuka, Fukuoka, 820-8502, Japan.,Quantitative Biology Center (QBiC), RIKEN, 6-2-3 Furuedai, Suita, Osaka, 565-0871, Japan
| | - Masamitsu Tanaka
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Biochemistry, Akita University Graduate School of Medicine, Akita, 010-8543, Japan
| | - Masahiro Ueda
- Quantitative Biology Center (QBiC), RIKEN, 6-2-3 Furuedai, Suita, Osaka, 565-0871, Japan.,Graduate School of Frontier Biosciences, Osaka University, Osaka, 565-0871, Japan
| | - Shigehiko Yumura
- Department of Functional Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Medicine, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi, 753-8512, Japan.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Plattner H, Verkhratsky A. The ancient roots of calcium signalling evolutionary tree. Cell Calcium 2015; 57:123-32. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ceca.2014.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2014] [Accepted: 12/05/2014] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
|
9
|
Sivaramakrishnan V, Fountain SJ. Intracellular P2X receptors as novel calcium release channels and modulators of osmoregulation in Dictyostelium: a comparison of two common laboratory strains. Channels (Austin) 2012; 7:43-6. [PMID: 23221467 DOI: 10.4161/chan.22737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
P2X receptors are calcium permeable ligand-gated ion channels activated by ATP. Their role as cell surface receptors for extracellular ATP released physiologically by mammalian cells is well established. However, the cellular function of P2X receptor subtypes that populate the membranes of intracellular compartments is not defined. An initial report described how intracellular P2X receptors control the function of the contractile vacuole, an osmoregulatory organelle in Dictyostelium and other protists, and that genetic disruption of P2X receptors severely impaired cell volume control during hypotonic stress. However, later studies refuted a functional role of intracellular P2X receptors in Dictyostelium. Here we provide evidence that the discrepancies reported between the studies are due to the laboratory strain of Dictyostelium employed, which display different phenotypes in response to hypotonic stress and a varied dependency upon P2X receptors for osmoregulation. We use the recent discovery that intracellular P2X receptors are novel calcium release channels to provide some mechanistic insight in an effort to explain why the strain variance may exist.
Collapse
|
10
|
Sivaramakrishnan V, Fountain SJ. A mechanism of intracellular P2X receptor activation. J Biol Chem 2012; 287:28315-26. [PMID: 22736763 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m112.372565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
P2X receptors (P2XRs) are ATP-activated calcium-permeable ligand-gated ion channels traditionally viewed as sensors of extracellular ATP during diverse physiological processes including pain, inflammation, and taste. However, in addition to a cell surface residency P2XRs also populate the membranes of intracellular compartments, including mammalian lysosomes, phagosomes, and the contractile vacuole (CV) of the amoeba Dictyostelium. The function of intracellular P2XRs is unclear and represents a major gap in our understanding of ATP signaling. Here, we exploit the genetic versatility of Dictyostelium to investigate the effects of physiological concentrations of ATP on calcium signaling in isolated CVs. Within the CV, an acidic calcium store, P2XRs are orientated to sense luminal ATP. Application of ATP to isolated vacuoles leads to luminal translocation of ATP and release of calcium. Mechanisms of luminal ATP translocation and ATP-evoked calcium release share common pharmacology, suggesting that they are linked processes. The ability of ATP to mobilize stored calcium is reduced in vacuoles isolated from P2X(A)R knock-out amoeba and ablated in cells devoid of P2XRs. Pharmacological inhibition of luminal ATP translocation or depletion of CV calcium attenuates CV function in vivo, manifesting as a loss of regulatory cell volume decrease following osmotic swelling. We propose that intracellular P2XRs regulate vacuole activity by acting as calcium release channels, activated by translocation of ATP into the vacuole lumen.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Venketesh Sivaramakrishnan
- School of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, Norfolk NR47TJ, United Kingdom
| | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Abstract
The involvement of calcium signalling during chemotaxis in Dictyostelium discoideum is well documented. Spatiotemporal increases of intracellular calcium ([Ca(2+)](i)) have been observed within seconds of stimulation with the chemoattractants folic acid and cAMP. This rise in [Ca(2+)](i) localises to the rear cortex of the cell (J. Cell Sci. 109:2673-2678, 1996) and has been found to be not essential for chemotaxis, but likely to be involved in fine tuning of chemotactic responses (EMBO J. 19:4846-4854, 2000). Measurements of cytosolic Ca(2+) ([Ca(2+)](c)) responses have involved the use of different Ca(2+) probes including ectopically expressed aequorin (a Ca(2+)-sensitive photoprotein), the fluorescent dye fura-2-dextran and the radioisotope (45)Ca(2+). The aequorin method (J. Cell Sci. 110:2845-2853, 1997) offers nonperturbing, real-time measurement of cytosolic free Ca(2+) in suspensions of cells, but the low levels of light emission preclude measurements on individual cells. Fura-2 imaging (Cell Calcium 22:65-74, 1997; Eur. J. Cell Biol. 58:172-181, 1992; Biochem. J. 332:541-548, 1998; BMC Cell Biol. 6:13, 2005) has the advantage of allowing Ca(2+) responses to be observed in individual cells so that the subcellular localisation of the response and differences amongst individual cells can be observed. However data collection is more labour intensive, much smaller numbers of cells are sampled, the cells are unavoidably damaged physically during loading and the time resolution (s) is much less than that provided by the aequorin method (ms). (45)Ca(2+) uptake assays (Cell Biol. Int. Rep. 2:71-79, 1978; J. Cell Biol. 112:103-110, 1991) allow measurement of Ca(2+) influx from the medium by cell suspensions with a time resolution of the order of seconds. Radioactive Ca(2+) uptake measurements are unsullied by but equally do not provide information about Ca(2+) efflux, intracellular Ca(2+) release or sequestration or changes in cytosolic free Ca(2+) levels.
Collapse
|
12
|
Valeyev NV, Kim JS, Heslop-Harrison JSP, Postlethwaite I, Kotov NV, Bates DG. Computational modelling suggests dynamic interactions between Ca2+, IP3 and G protein-coupled modules are key to robust Dictyostelium aggregation. MOLECULAR BIOSYSTEMS 2009; 5:612-28. [PMID: 19462019 DOI: 10.1039/b822074c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Under conditions of starvation, Dictyostelium cells begin a programme of development during which they aggregate to form a multicellular structure by chemotaxis, guided by propagating waves of cyclic AMP that are relayed robustly from cell to cell. In this paper, we develop and analyse a new model for the intracellular and extracellular cAMP dependent processes that regulate Dictyostelium migration. The model allows, for the first time, a quantitative analysis of the dynamic interactions between calcium, IP(3) and G protein-dependent modules that are shown to be key to the generation of robust cAMP oscillations in Dictyostelium cells. The model provides a mechanistic explanation for the transient increase in cytosolic free Ca(2+) concentration seen in recent experiments with the application of the calmodulin inhibitor calmidazolium (R24571) to Dictyostelium cells, and also allows elucidation of the effects of varying both the conductivity of stretch-activated channels and the concentration of external phosphodiesterase on the oscillatory regime of an individual cell. A rigorous analysis of the robustness of the new model shows that interactions between the different modules significantly reduce the sensitivity of the resulting cAMP oscillations to variations in the kinetics of different Dictyostelium cells, an essential requirement for the generation of the spatially and temporally synchronised chemoattractant cAMP waves that guide Dictyostelium aggregation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Najl V Valeyev
- Systems Biology Lab, Department of Engineering, University of Leicester, University Road, Leicester, UK.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
Acidic Ca2+ stores, excitability, and cell patterning in Dictyostelium discoideum. EUKARYOTIC CELL 2009; 8:696-702. [PMID: 19252125 DOI: 10.1128/ec.00360-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
|
14
|
Plattner H, Sehring IM, Schilde C, Ladenburger E. Chapter 5 Pharmacology of Ciliated Protozoa—Drug (In)Sensitivity and Experimental Drug (Ab)Use. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2009; 273:163-218. [DOI: 10.1016/s1937-6448(08)01805-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
|