1
|
Wang S, Wang Y, Zou S. A Glance at the Molecules That Regulate Oligodendrocyte Myelination. Curr Issues Mol Biol 2022; 44:2194-2216. [PMID: 35678678 PMCID: PMC9164040 DOI: 10.3390/cimb44050149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Revised: 05/10/2022] [Accepted: 05/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Oligodendrocyte (OL) myelination is a critical process for the neuronal axon function in the central nervous system. After demyelination occurs because of pathophysiology, remyelination makes repairs similar to myelination. Proliferation and differentiation are the two main stages in OL myelination, and most factors commonly play converse roles in these two stages, except for a few factors and signaling pathways, such as OLIG2 (Oligodendrocyte transcription factor 2). Moreover, some OL maturation gene mutations induce hypomyelination or hypermyelination without an obvious function in proliferation and differentiation. Herein, three types of factors regulating myelination are reviewed in sequence.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shunqi Wang
- Institute of Life Science & School of Life Sciences, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330031, China; (S.W.); (Y.W.)
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330031, China
| | - Yingxing Wang
- Institute of Life Science & School of Life Sciences, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330031, China; (S.W.); (Y.W.)
| | - Suqi Zou
- Institute of Life Science & School of Life Sciences, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330031, China; (S.W.); (Y.W.)
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330031, China
- Correspondence:
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Temporal Modulation of Drug Desensitization Procedures. Curr Issues Mol Biol 2022; 44:833-844. [PMID: 35723342 PMCID: PMC8929139 DOI: 10.3390/cimb44020057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2022] [Revised: 01/28/2022] [Accepted: 01/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Drug hypersensitivity reactions are an unavoidable clinical consequence of the presence of new therapeutic agents. These adverse reactions concern patients afflicted with infectious diseases (e.g., hypersensitivity to antibiotics), and with non-infectious chronic diseases, such as in cancers, diabetes or cystic fibrosis treatments, and may occur at the first drug administration or after repeated exposures. Here we revise recent key studies on the mechanisms underlying the desensitization protocols, and propose an additional temporal regulation layer that is based on the circadian control of the signaling pathway involved and on the modulation of the memory effects established by the desensitization procedures.
Collapse
|
3
|
Abstract
Interactions between the nervous system and immune system are central regulators of chronic itch, a key feature of pathologies like atopic dermatitis and allergic contact dermatitis. Cysteinyl leukotrienes (LTC4, LTD4, and LTE4) are eicosanoid lipids known for mediating inflammation, bronchoconstriction, and vascular leakage. We demonstrate here that CysLTs are potent itch inducers and that this effect depends on the specific coupling of LTC4 with its receptor CysLT2R, which is expressed in a population of peripheral sensory neurons in the mouse and in human. We show that the LTC4/CysLT2R pathway contributes to a model of chronic itch, suggesting that CysLT2R could be a new therapeutic target for intractable chronic itch. Acute and chronic itch are burdensome manifestations of skin pathologies including allergic skin diseases and atopic dermatitis, but the underlying molecular mechanisms are not well understood. Cysteinyl leukotrienes (CysLTs), comprising LTC4, LTD4, and LTE4, are produced by immune cells during type 2 inflammation. Here, we uncover a role for LTC4 and its signaling through the CysLT receptor 2 (CysLT2R) in itch. Cysltr2 transcript is highly expressed in dorsal root ganglia (DRG) neurons linked to itch in mice. We also detected CYSLTR2 in a broad population of human DRG neurons. Injection of leukotriene C4 (LTC4) or its nonhydrolyzable form NMLTC4, but neither LTD4 nor LTE4, induced dose-dependent itch but not pain behaviors in mice. LTC4-mediated itch differed in bout duration and kinetics from pruritogens histamine, compound 48/80, and chloroquine. NMLTC4-induced itch was abrogated in mice deficient for Cysltr2 or when deficiency was restricted to radioresistant cells. Itch was unaffected in mice deficient for Cysltr1, Trpv1, or mast cells (WSh mice). CysLT2R played a role in itch in the MC903 mouse model of chronic itch and dermatitis, but not in models of dry skin or compound 48/80- or Alternaria-induced itch. In MC903-treated mice, CysLT levels increased in skin over time, and Cysltr2−/− mice showed decreased itch in the chronic phase of inflammation. Collectively, our study reveals that LTC4 acts through CysLT2R as its physiological receptor to induce itch, and CysLT2R contributes to itch in a model of dermatitis. Therefore, targeting CysLT signaling may be a promising approach to treat inflammatory itch.
Collapse
|
4
|
Pastwińska J, Żelechowska P, Walczak-Drzewiecka A, Brzezińska-Błaszczyk E, Dastych J. The Art of Mast Cell Adhesion. Cells 2020; 9:E2664. [PMID: 33322506 PMCID: PMC7764012 DOI: 10.3390/cells9122664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Revised: 12/05/2020] [Accepted: 12/10/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Cell adhesion is one of the basic phenomena occurring in a living organism, affecting many other processes such as proliferation, differentiation, migration, or cell viability. Mast cells (MCs) are important elements involved in defending the host against various pathogens and regulating inflammatory processes. Due to numerous mediators, they are contributing to the modulation of many basic cellular processes in a variety of cells, including the expression and functioning of different adhesive molecules. They also express themselves many adhesive proteins, including ICAM-1, ICAM-3, VCAM-1, integrins, L-selectin, E-cadherin, and N-cadherin. These molecules enable MCs to interact with other cells and components of the extracellular matrix (ECM), creating structures such as adherens junctions and focal adhesion sites, and triggering a signaling cascade. A thorough understanding of these cellular mechanisms can create a better understanding of MC biology and reveal new goals for MC targeted therapy. This review will focus on the current knowledge of adhesion mechanisms with the involvement of MCs. It also provides insight into the influence of MCs or MC-derived mediators on the adhesion molecule expression in different cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Pastwińska
- Laboratory of Cellular Immunology, Institute of Medical Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 93-232 Lodz, Poland; (J.P.); (A.W.-D.)
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Medical University of Lodz, 92-213 Lodz, Poland; (P.Ż.); (E.B.-B.)
| | - Paulina Żelechowska
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Medical University of Lodz, 92-213 Lodz, Poland; (P.Ż.); (E.B.-B.)
| | - Aurelia Walczak-Drzewiecka
- Laboratory of Cellular Immunology, Institute of Medical Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 93-232 Lodz, Poland; (J.P.); (A.W.-D.)
| | - Ewa Brzezińska-Błaszczyk
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Medical University of Lodz, 92-213 Lodz, Poland; (P.Ż.); (E.B.-B.)
| | - Jarosław Dastych
- Laboratory of Cellular Immunology, Institute of Medical Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 93-232 Lodz, Poland; (J.P.); (A.W.-D.)
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Rabinovitch N, Jones MJ, Gladish N, Faino AV, Strand M, Morin AM, MacIsaac J, Lin DTS, Reynolds PR, Singh A, Gelfand EW, Kobor MS, Carlsten C. Methylation of cysteinyl leukotriene receptor 1 genes associates with lung function in asthmatics exposed to traffic-related air pollution. Epigenetics 2020; 16:177-185. [PMID: 32657253 DOI: 10.1080/15592294.2020.1790802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Air pollution is associated with early declines in lung function and increased levels of asthma-related cysteinyl leukotrienes (CysLT) but a biological pathway linking this rapid response has not been delineated. In this randomized controlled diesel exhaust (DE) challenge study of 16 adult asthmatics, increased exposure-attributable urinary leukotriene E4 (uLTE4, a biomarker of cysteinyl leukotriene production) was correlated (p = 0.04) with declines in forced expiratory volume in 1-second (FEV1) within 6 hours of exposure. Exposure-attributable uLTE4 increases were correlated (p = 0.02) with increased CysLT receptor 1 (CysLTR1) methylation in peripheral blood mononuclear cells which, in turn, was marginally correlated (p = 0.06) with decreased CysLTR1 expression. Decreased CysLTR1 expression was, in turn, correlated (p = 0.0007) with FEV1 declines. During the same time period, increased methylation of GPR17 (a negative regulator of CysLTR1) was observed after DE exposure (p = 0.02); this methylation increase was correlated (p = 0.001) with decreased CysLTR1 methylation which, in turn, was marginally correlated (p = 0.06) with increased CysLTR1 expression; increased CysLTR1 expression was correlated (p = 0.0007) with FEV1 increases. Collectively, these data delineate a potential mechanistic pathway linking increased DE exposure-attributable CysLT levels to lung function declines through changes in CysLTR1-related methylation and gene expression.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nathan Rabinovitch
- Department of Pediatrics P: 303-398-1992, Center for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, University of British Columbia/British Columbia Children's Hospital Research Institute , Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Meaghan J Jones
- Department of Medical Genetics P: 604-875-3194, Center for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, University of British Columbia/British Columbia Children's Hospital Research Institute , Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Nicole Gladish
- Department of Medical Genetics P: 604-875-3194, Center for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, University of British Columbia/British Columbia Children's Hospital Research Institute , Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Anna V Faino
- Biostatistics Program P: 206-667-4995, Public Health Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center , Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Matthew Strand
- Department of Medicine P: 303-398-1862, National Jewish Health , Denver, CO, USA
| | - Alexander M Morin
- Department of Medical Genetics P: 604-875-3194, Center for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, University of British Columbia/British Columbia Children's Hospital Research Institute , Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Julie MacIsaac
- Department of Medical Genetics P: 604-875-3194, Center for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, University of British Columbia/British Columbia Children's Hospital Research Institute , Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - David T S Lin
- Department of Medical Genetics P: 604-875-3194, Center for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, University of British Columbia/British Columbia Children's Hospital Research Institute , Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Paul R Reynolds
- Department of Medicine P: 303-398-1862, National Jewish Health , Denver, CO, USA
| | - Amrit Singh
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine P: 604-764-5827, University of British Columbia , Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Erwin W Gelfand
- Department of Pediatrics P: 303-398-1992, Center for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, University of British Columbia/British Columbia Children's Hospital Research Institute , Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Michael S Kobor
- Department of Medical Genetics P: 604-875-3194, Center for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, University of British Columbia/British Columbia Children's Hospital Research Institute , Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Christopher Carlsten
- Department of Medicine, P: 604-875-4729, University of British Columbia , Vancouver, BC, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Lecca D, Raffaele S, Abbracchio MP, Fumagalli M. Regulation and signaling of the GPR17 receptor in oligodendroglial cells. Glia 2020; 68:1957-1967. [PMID: 32086854 DOI: 10.1002/glia.23807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2019] [Revised: 02/10/2020] [Accepted: 02/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Remyelination, namely, the formation of new myelin sheaths around denuded axons, counteracts axonal degeneration and restores neuronal function. Considerable advances have been made in understanding this regenerative process that often fails in diseases like multiple sclerosis, leaving axons demyelinated and vulnerable to damage, thus contributing to disease progression. The identification of the membrane receptor GPR17 on a subset of oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs), which mediate remyelination in the adult central nervous system (CNS), has led to a huge amount of evidence that validated this receptor as a new attractive target for remyelinating therapies. Here, we summarize the role of GPR17 in OPC function, myelination and remyelination, describing its atypical pharmacology, its downstream signaling, and the genetic and epigenetic factors modulating its activity. We also highlight crucial insights into GPR17 pathophysiology coming from the demonstration that oligodendrocyte injury, associated with inflammation in chronic neurodegenerative conditions, is invariably characterized by abnormal and persistent GPR17 upregulation, which, in turn, is accompanied by a block of OPCs at immature premyelinating stages. Finally, we discuss the current literature in light of the potential exploitment of GPR17 as a therapeutic target to promote remyelination.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Davide Lecca
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Stefano Raffaele
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Maria P Abbracchio
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Marta Fumagalli
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Magrone T, Magrone M, Jirillo E. Mast Cells as a Double-Edged Sword in Immunity: Their Function in Health and Disease. First of Two Parts. Endocr Metab Immune Disord Drug Targets 2019; 20:654-669. [PMID: 31789135 DOI: 10.2174/1871530319666191202120301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2019] [Revised: 10/08/2019] [Accepted: 11/21/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Mast cells (MCs) have recently been re-interpreted in the context of the immune scenario in the sense that their pro-allergic role is no longer exclusive. In fact, MCs even in steady state conditions maintain homeostatic functions, producing mediators and intensively cross-talking with other immune cells. Here, emphasis will be placed on the array of receptors expressed by MCs and the variety of cytokines they produce. Then, the bulk of data discussed will provide readers with a wealth of information on the dual ability of MCs not only to defend but also to offend the host. This double attitude of MCs relies on many variables, such as their subsets, tissues of residency and type of stimuli ranging from microbes to allergens and food antigens. Finally, the relationship between MCs with basophils and eosinophils will be discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Thea Magrone
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Neuroscience and Sensory Organs, School of Medicine, University of Bari "Aldo Moro", Bari, Italy
| | - Manrico Magrone
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Neuroscience and Sensory Organs, School of Medicine, University of Bari "Aldo Moro", Bari, Italy
| | - Emilio Jirillo
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Neuroscience and Sensory Organs, School of Medicine, University of Bari "Aldo Moro", Bari, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Żelechowska P, Agier J, Kozłowska E, Brzezińska-Błaszczyk E. Mast cells participate in chronic low-grade inflammation within adipose tissue. Obes Rev 2018; 19:686-697. [PMID: 29334696 DOI: 10.1111/obr.12670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2017] [Revised: 11/29/2017] [Accepted: 12/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Obesity is reckoned as one of the civilization diseases, posing a considerable global health issue. Evidence points towards a contribution of multitude immune cell populations in obesity pathomechanism and the development of chronic low-grade inflammation in the expanded adipose tissue. Notably, adipose tissue is a reservoir of mast cells which number in individuals with obesity particularly increased. Some of them tend to degranulation what generate secretion of strong pro-inflammatory and regulatory mediators, as well as cytokines/chemokines. Several lines of evidence suggest that mast cells are strictly associated with pro-inflammatory status in adipose tissue by their indirect impact on immune cell attraction and activation. Furthermore, mast cells affect adipose tissue remodelling and fibrosis by adipocyte differentiation, fibroblast proliferation and enhancing extracellular matrix proteins expression. This review will summarize current knowledge on mast cell features and their role in the development of chronic low-grade inflammation within adipose tissue.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- P Żelechowska
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland
| | - J Agier
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland
| | - E Kozłowska
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland
| | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Cathelicidin LL-37 Affects Surface and Intracellular Toll-Like Receptor Expression in Tissue Mast Cells. J Immunol Res 2018; 2018:7357162. [PMID: 29670923 PMCID: PMC5836302 DOI: 10.1155/2018/7357162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2017] [Accepted: 11/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Undoubtedly, mast cells take part in host defense against microorganisms as they are numerous at the portal of infection, they release many proinflammatory and antimicrobial mediators, and they express pattern recognition receptors, such as TLRs. These receptors play a key role in recognition and binding molecules associated with microorganisms and molecules associated with damage. Cathelicidins exhibit direct antimicrobial activities against a broad spectrum of microbes by perturbing their cell membranes. Accumulating evidence suggests a role for these molecules in supporting cell activation. We examined the impact of human cathelicidin LL-37 on tissue mast cell TLR expression and distribution. Depending on context, we show that LL-37 stimulation resulted in minor to major effects on TLR2, TLR3, TLR4, TLR5, TLR7, and TLR9 expression. Confocal microscopy analysis showed that, upon stimulation, TLRs may translocate from the cell interior to the surface and conversely. FPR2 and EGFR inhibitors reduced the increase in expression of selected receptors. We also established that LL-37 acts as a powerful inducer of CCL3 and ROS generation. These results showed that in response to LL-37, mast cells enhance the capability to detect invading pathogens by modulation of TLR expression in what may be involved FPR2 or EGFR molecules.
Collapse
|
10
|
Redegeld FA, Yu Y, Kumari S, Charles N, Blank U. Non-IgE mediated mast cell activation. Immunol Rev 2018; 282:87-113. [DOI: 10.1111/imr.12629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Frank A. Redegeld
- Division of Pharmacology; Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences; Utrecht University; Utrecht The Netherlands
| | - Yingxin Yu
- Division of Pharmacology; Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences; Utrecht University; Utrecht The Netherlands
| | - Sangeeta Kumari
- Division of Pharmacology; Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences; Utrecht University; Utrecht The Netherlands
| | - Nicolas Charles
- INSERM U1149; Centre de Recherche sur l'Inflammation; Paris France
- CNRS ERL8252; Paris France
- Université Paris-Diderot; Sorbonne Paris Cité; Faculté de Médecine; Site Xavier Bichat; Paris France
| | - Ulrich Blank
- INSERM U1149; Centre de Recherche sur l'Inflammation; Paris France
- CNRS ERL8252; Paris France
- Université Paris-Diderot; Sorbonne Paris Cité; Faculté de Médecine; Site Xavier Bichat; Paris France
- Inflamex Laboratory of Excellence; Paris France
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
de Las Vecillas Sánchez L, Alenazy LA, Garcia-Neuer M, Castells MC. Drug Hypersensitivity and Desensitizations: Mechanisms and New Approaches. Int J Mol Sci 2017; 18:E1316. [PMID: 28632196 PMCID: PMC5486137 DOI: 10.3390/ijms18061316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2017] [Revised: 06/13/2017] [Accepted: 06/14/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Drug hypersensitivity reactions (HSRs) are increasing in the 21st Century with the ever expanding availability of new therapeutic agents. Patients with cancer, chronic inflammatory diseases, cystic fibrosis, or diabetes can become allergic to their first line therapy after repeated exposures or through cross reactivity with environmental allergens. Avoidance of the offending allergenic drug may impact disease management, quality of life, and life expectancy. Precision medicine provides new tools for the understanding and management of hypersensitivity reactions (HSRs), as well as a personalized treatment approach for IgE (Immunoglobuline E) and non-IgE mediated HSRs with drug desensitization (DS). DS induces a temporary hyporesponsive state by incremental escalation of sub-optimal doses of the offending drug. In vitro models have shown evidence that IgE desensitization is an antigen-specific process which blocks calcium flux, impacts antigen/IgE/FcεRI complex internalization and prevents the acute and late phase reactions as well as mast cell mediator release. Through a "bench to bedside" approach, in vitro desensitization models help elucidate the molecular pathways involved in DS, providing new insights to improved desensitization protocols for all patients. The aim of this review is to summarize up to date information on the drug HSRs, the IgE mediated mechanisms of desensitization, and their clinical applications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Leticia de Las Vecillas Sánchez
- Division of Rheumatology, Immunology and Allergy, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
- Department of Allergy, Marqués de Valdecilla University Hospital-IDIVAL, 39011 Santander, Spain.
| | - Leila A Alenazy
- Division of Rheumatology, Immunology and Allergy, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
- Department of Medicine, College of Medicine, King Saud University, Riyadh 12372, Saudi Arabia.
- Master of Medical Sciences in Immunology Program, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
| | - Marlene Garcia-Neuer
- Division of Rheumatology, Immunology and Allergy, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
| | - Mariana C Castells
- Division of Rheumatology, Immunology and Allergy, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
| |
Collapse
|