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Hartlerode AJ, Mostafa AM, Orban SK, Benedeck R, Campbell K, Hoenerhoff MJ, Ferguson DO, Sekiguchi JM. Reduced levels of MRE11 cause disease phenotypes distinct from ataxia telangiectasia-like disorder. Hum Mol Genet 2024:ddae101. [PMID: 38888340 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddae101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2023] [Revised: 05/15/2024] [Indexed: 06/20/2024] Open
Abstract
The MRE11/RAD50/NBS1 (MRN) complex plays critical roles in cellular responses to DNA double-strand breaks. MRN is involved in end binding and processing, and it also induces cell cycle checkpoints by activating the ataxia-telangiectasia mutated (ATM) protein kinase. Hypomorphic pathogenic variants in the MRE11, RAD50, or NBS1 genes cause autosomal recessive genome instability syndromes featuring variable degrees of dwarfism, neurological defects, anemia, and cancer predisposition. Disease-associated MRN alleles include missense and nonsense variants, and many cause reduced protein levels of the entire MRN complex. However, the dramatic variability in the disease manifestation of MRN pathogenic variants is not understood. We sought to determine if low protein levels are a significant contributor to disease sequelae and therefore generated a transgenic murine model expressing MRE11 at low levels. These mice display dramatic phenotypes including small body size, severe anemia, and impaired DNA repair. We demonstrate that, distinct from ataxia telangiectasia-like disorder caused by MRE11 pathogenic missense or nonsense variants, mice and cultured cells expressing low MRE11 levels do not display the anticipated defects in ATM activation. Our findings indicate that ATM signaling can be supported by very low levels of the MRN complex and imply that defective ATM activation results from perturbation of MRN function caused by specific hypomorphic disease mutations. These distinct phenotypic outcomes underline the importance of understanding the impact of specific pathogenic MRE11 variants, which may help direct appropriate early surveillance for patients with these complicated disorders in a clinical setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea J Hartlerode
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School, 109 Zina Pitcher Place, Rm 2067, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2200, United States
- Department of Human Genetics, University of Michigan Medical School, 109 Zina Pitcher Place, Rm 2063, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2200, United States
| | - Ahmed M Mostafa
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School, 109 Zina Pitcher Place, Rm 2067, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2200, United States
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ain Shams University, Organization of African Unity Street, Cairo, Egypt 11566
| | - Steven K Orban
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School, 109 Zina Pitcher Place, Rm 2067, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2200, United States
| | - Rachel Benedeck
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School, 109 Zina Pitcher Place, Rm 2067, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2200, United States
- Program in Biomedical Sciences PhD Program, University of Michigan Medical School, 1135 Catherine Street, Rm 2960, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, United States
| | - Koral Campbell
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School, 109 Zina Pitcher Place, Rm 2067, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2200, United States
- Program in Biomedical Sciences PhD Program, University of Michigan Medical School, 1135 Catherine Street, Rm 2960, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, United States
| | - Mark J Hoenerhoff
- In Vivo Animal Core, Unit for Laboratory Animal Medicine, University of Michigan Medical School, 2800 Plymouth Road, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, United States
| | - David O Ferguson
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School, 109 Zina Pitcher Place, Rm 2067, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2200, United States
| | - JoAnn M Sekiguchi
- Department of Human Genetics, University of Michigan Medical School, 109 Zina Pitcher Place, Rm 2063, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2200, United States
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Takagi M, Hoshino A, Bousset K, Röddecke J, Martin HL, Folcut I, Tomomasa D, Yang X, Kobayashi J, Sakata N, Yoshida K, Miyano S, Ogawa S, Kojima S, Morio T, Dörk T, Kanegane H. Bone Marrow Failure and Immunodeficiency Associated with Human RAD50 Variants. J Clin Immunol 2023; 43:2136-2145. [PMID: 37794136 DOI: 10.1007/s10875-023-01591-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2022] [Accepted: 09/20/2023] [Indexed: 10/06/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE The MRE11-RAD50-NBN (MRN) complex plays a key role in recognizing and signaling DNA double-strand breaks. Pathogenic variants in NBN and MRE11 give rise to the autosomal-recessive diseases, Nijmegen breakage syndrome (NBS) and ataxia telangiectasia-like disorder, respectively. The clinical consequences of pathogenic variants in RAD50 are incompletely understood. We aimed to characterize a newly identified RAD50 deficiency/NBS-like disorder (NBSLD) patient with bone marrow failure and immunodeficiency. METHODS We report on a girl with microcephaly, mental retardation, bird-like face, short stature, bone marrow failure and B-cell immunodeficiency. We searched for candidate gene by whole-exome sequencing and analyzed the cellular phenotype of patient-derived fibroblasts using immunoblotting, radiation sensitivity assays and lentiviral complementation experiments. RESULTS Compound heterozygosity for two variants in the RAD50 gene (p.Arg83His and p.Glu485Ter) was identified in this patient. The expression of RAD50 protein and MRN complex formation was maintained in the cells derived from this patient. DNA damage-induced activation of the ATM kinase was markedly decreased, which was restored by the expression of wild-type (WT) RAD50. Radiosensitivity appeared inconspicuous in the patient-derived cell line as assessed by colony formation assay. The RAD50R83H missense substitution did not rescue the mitotic defect in complementation experiments using RAD50-deficient fibroblasts, whereas RAD50WT did. The RAD50E485X nonsense variant was associated with in-frame skipping of exon 10 (p.Glu485_545del). CONCLUSION These findings indicate important roles of RAD50 in human bone marrow and immune cells. RAD50 deficiency/NBSLD can manifest as a distinct inborn error of immunity characterized by bone marrow failure and B-cell immunodeficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masatoshi Takagi
- Department of Pediatrics and Developmental Biology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU), Tokyo, Japan
- Department of Community Pediatrics, Perinatal and Maternal Medicine, Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU), Tokyo, Japan
| | - Akihiro Hoshino
- Department of Pediatrics and Developmental Biology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU), Tokyo, Japan
- Department of Pediatrics, Graduate School of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toyama, Toyama, Japan
| | - Kristine Bousset
- Gynaecology Research Unit, Hannover Medical School, 30625, Hannover, Germany
| | - Jule Röddecke
- Gynaecology Research Unit, Hannover Medical School, 30625, Hannover, Germany
| | - Hanna Luisa Martin
- Gynaecology Research Unit, Hannover Medical School, 30625, Hannover, Germany
| | - Iulia Folcut
- Gynaecology Research Unit, Hannover Medical School, 30625, Hannover, Germany
| | - Dan Tomomasa
- Department of Pediatrics and Developmental Biology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU), Tokyo, Japan
| | - Xi Yang
- Department of Pediatrics, Graduate School of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toyama, Toyama, Japan
- Division of Immunology, Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Junya Kobayashi
- Department of Genome Repair Dynamics, Radiation Biology Center, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Naoki Sakata
- Department of Pediatrics, Kindai University Faculty of Medicine, Osaka-Sayama, Japan
| | - Kenichi Yoshida
- Department of Pathology and Tumor Biology, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Satoru Miyano
- Laboratory of DNA Information Analysis, Human Genome Center, Institute of Medical Science, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
- Laboratory of Sequence Analysis, Human Genome Center, Institute of Medical Science, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Seishi Ogawa
- Department of Pathology and Tumor Biology, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Seiji Kojima
- Department of Pediatrics, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Tomohiro Morio
- Department of Pediatrics and Developmental Biology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU), Tokyo, Japan
| | - Thilo Dörk
- Gynaecology Research Unit, Hannover Medical School, 30625, Hannover, Germany.
| | - Hirokazu Kanegane
- Department of Child Health and Development, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU), 1-5-45 Yushima, Bunkyo-Ku, Tokyo, 113-8519, Japan.
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3
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Mre11-Rad50: the DNA end game. Biochem Soc Trans 2023; 51:527-538. [PMID: 36892213 DOI: 10.1042/bst20220754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2023] [Revised: 02/09/2023] [Accepted: 02/17/2023] [Indexed: 03/10/2023]
Abstract
The Mre11-Rad50-(Nbs1/Xrs2) complex is an evolutionarily conserved factor for the repair of DNA double-strand breaks and other DNA termini in all kingdoms of life. It is an intricate DNA associated molecular machine that cuts, among other functions, a large variety of free and obstructed DNA termini for DNA repair by end joining or homologous recombination, yet leaves undamaged DNA intact. Recent years have brought progress in both the structural and functional analyses of Mre11-Rad50 orthologs, revealing mechanisms of DNA end recognition, endo/exonuclease activities, nuclease regulation and DNA scaffolding. Here, I review our current understanding and recent progress on the functional architecture Mre11-Rad50 and how this chromosome associated coiled-coil ABC ATPase acts as DNA topology specific endo-/exonuclease.
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Wan Y, Morikawa M, Morikawa M, Iwata S, Naseer MI, Ahmed Chaudhary AG, Tanaka Y, Hirokawa N. KIF4 regulates neuronal morphology and seizure susceptibility via the PARP1 signaling pathway. J Cell Biol 2023; 222:e202208108. [PMID: 36482480 PMCID: PMC9735414 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.202208108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2022] [Revised: 10/19/2022] [Accepted: 11/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Epilepsy is a common neurological disease worldwide, and one of its causes is genetic abnormalities. Here, we identified a point mutation in KIF4A, a member of kinesin superfamily molecular motors, in patients with neurological disorders such as epilepsy, developmental delay, and intellectual disability. KIF4 is involved in the poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) signaling pathway, and the mutation (R728Q) strengthened its affinity with PARP1 through elongation of the KIF4 coiled-coil domain. Behavioral tests showed that KIF4-mutant mice exhibited mild developmental delay with lower seizure threshold. Further experiments revealed that the KIF4 mutation caused aberrant morphology in dendrites and spines of hippocampal pyramidal neurons through PARP1-TrkB-KCC2 pathway. Furthermore, supplementing NAD, which activates PARP1, could modulate the TrkB-KCC2 pathway and rescue the seizure susceptibility phenotype of the mutant mice. Therefore, these findings indicate that KIF4 is engaged in a fundamental mechanism regulating seizure susceptibility and could be a potential target for epilepsy treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuansong Wan
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Momo Morikawa
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Manatsu Morikawa
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Suguru Iwata
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Muhammad Imran Naseer
- Center of Excellence in Genomic Medicine Research, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | | | - Yosuke Tanaka
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Nobutaka Hirokawa
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
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Bogusławska DM, Skulski M, Bartoszewski R, Machnicka B, Heger E, Kuliczkowski K, Sikorski AF. A rare mutation (p.F149del) of the NT5C3A gene is associated with pyrimidine 5'-nucleotidase deficiency. Cell Mol Biol Lett 2022; 27:104. [PMID: 36434495 PMCID: PMC9700897 DOI: 10.1186/s11658-022-00405-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2022] [Accepted: 11/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Pyrimidine 5'-nucleotidase deficiency is a rare erythrocyte enzymopathy. Here we report two cases of hemolytic anemia in brothers of Polish origin that are associated with a very rare mutation. Heterozygous deletion in the NT5C3A gene (c.444_446delGTT), inherited most likely from their asymptomatic mother, resulted in a single amino acid residue deletion (p.F149del) in cytosolic pyrimidine 5'-nucleotidase. However, only the mutated transcript was present in the reticulocyte transcriptome of both patients. Only residual activity of pyrimidine 5'-nucleotidase in the brothers' erythrocytes could be observed when compared with the controls, including their asymptomatic father and sister. Western blot showed no sign of the presence of 5'-nucleotidase protein in the erythrocytes of both studied patients. The 2.5-fold reduction of the purine/pyrimidine ratio observed only in the brothers' erythrocytes confirms the correlation of the results of molecular analysis, including whole-exome sequencing, with the phenotype of the pyrimidine 5'-nucleotidase deficiency. Altogether, our results may substantiate the hypothesis of the heterogeneity of the molecular basis of the defect involving both the mutation presented here and negative regulation of expression of the "normal" allele.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dżamila M. Bogusławska
- grid.28048.360000 0001 0711 4236Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Zielona Góra, Prof. Z. Szafrana 1 St., 65-516 Zielona Góra, Poland
| | - Michał Skulski
- grid.8505.80000 0001 1010 5103Department of Cytobiochemistry, Faculty of Biotechnology, University of Wrocław, F. Joliot-Curie 14a St., 50-383 Wrocław, Poland
| | - Rafał Bartoszewski
- grid.8505.80000 0001 1010 5103Department of Biophysics, Faculty of Biotechnology, University of Wrocław, F. Joliot-Curie 14a St., 50-383 Wrocław, Poland
| | - Beata Machnicka
- grid.28048.360000 0001 0711 4236Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Zielona Góra, Prof. Z. Szafrana 1 St., 65-516 Zielona Góra, Poland
| | - Elżbieta Heger
- grid.28048.360000 0001 0711 4236Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Zielona Góra, Prof. Z. Szafrana 1 St., 65-516 Zielona Góra, Poland
| | - Kazimierz Kuliczkowski
- grid.498904.8Silesian Park of Medical Technology Kardio-Med Silesia, M. Curie-Skłodowskiej 10C St., 41-800 Zabrze, Poland
| | - Aleksander F. Sikorski
- Research and Development Centre, Regional Specialist Hospital, Kamieńskiego 73a St., 51-154 Wrocław, Poland
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Canny MD, Latham M. LRET-derived HADDOCK structural models describe the conformational heterogeneity required for DNA cleavage by the Mre11-Rad50 DNA damage repair complex. eLife 2022; 11:69579. [PMID: 35084331 PMCID: PMC8824468 DOI: 10.7554/elife.69579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The Mre11-Rad50-Nbs1 protein complex is one of the first responders to DNA double-strand breaks. Studies have shown that the catalytic activities of the evolutionarily conserved Mre11-Rad50 (MR) core complex depend on an ATP-dependent global conformational change that takes the macromolecule from an open, extended structure in the absence of ATP to a closed, globular structure when ATP is bound. We have previously identified an additional ‘partially open’ conformation using luminescence resonance energy transfer (LRET) experiments. Here, a combination of LRET and the molecular docking program HADDOCK was used to further investigate this partially open state and identify three conformations of MR in solution: closed, partially open, and open, which are in addition to the extended, apo conformation. Mutants disrupting specific Mre11-Rad50 interactions within each conformation were used in nuclease activity assays on a variety of DNA substrates to help put the three states into a functional perspective. LRET data collected on MR bound to DNA demonstrate that the three conformations also exist when nuclease substrates are bound. These models were further supported with small-angle X-ray scattering data, which corroborate the presence of multiple states in solution. Together, the data suggest a mechanism for the nuclease activity of the MR complex along the DNA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marella D Canny
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, United States
| | - Michael Latham
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, United States
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Ko JMY, Lam SY, Ning L, Chai AWY, Lei LC, Choi SSA, Wong CWY, Lung ML. RAD50 Loss of Function Variants in the Zinc Hook Domain Associated with Higher Risk of Familial Esophageal Squamous Cell Carcinoma. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13184715. [PMID: 34572942 PMCID: PMC8472384 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13184715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2021] [Revised: 09/11/2021] [Accepted: 09/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Two deleterious RAD50 loss-of-function germline mutations were identified from the blood DNA of a cohort of 3289 Henan individuals by next-generation sequencing. These rare loss-of-function RAD50 variants were associated with a substantial increased risk of familial esophageal squamous cell carcinoma in high-risk Northern China. A functional study suggested that the RAD50 mutations may affect DNA repair and cell survival upon replication stress. Our preliminary functional study provided novel insight and the potential clinical implication that patients with heterozygous RAD50L1264F and RAD50Q672X status may have a potential synthetic lethal therapeutic option with CHK1 inhibitors. Further study is warranted for validation of the implicated genetic susceptibility role of the RAD50 Zinc Hook mutants. Abstract Unbiased whole-exome sequencing approaches in familial esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) initially prioritized RAD50 as a candidate cancer predisposition gene. The combined study with 3289 Henan individuals from Northern China identified two pathogenic RAD50 protein truncation variants, p.Q672X and a recurrent p.K722fs variant at the zinc hook domain significantly conferring increased familial ESCC risk. Effects of ~10-fold higher familial ESCC risk were observed, when compared to East Asians from the gnomAD database. Functional characterization suggested that the RAD50Q672X mutation contributes a dominant-negative effect in DNA repair of double-stranded breaks. Overexpression of the RAD50Q672X and RAD50L1264F missense mutation also sensitized cell death upon replication stress stimuli induced by formaldehyde treatment and the CHK1 inhibitor, AZD7762. Our study suggested the novel insight of the potential for synthetic lethal therapeutic options for RAD50Q672X and the East-Asian-specific RAD50L1264F variants and CHK1 inhibitors. Our study also suggested the association of RAD50 LOF variants in the zinc hook domain with a higher risk of familial ESCC in Chinese.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josephine Mun Yee Ko
- Correspondence: (J.M.Y.K.); (M.L.L.); Tel.: +852-3917-6931 (J.M.Y.K.); +852-3917-9783 (M.L.L.)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Maria Li Lung
- Correspondence: (J.M.Y.K.); (M.L.L.); Tel.: +852-3917-6931 (J.M.Y.K.); +852-3917-9783 (M.L.L.)
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Raina A, Sahu PK, Laskar RA, Rajora N, Sao R, Khan S, Ganai RA. Mechanisms of Genome Maintenance in Plants: Playing It Safe With Breaks and Bumps. Front Genet 2021; 12:675686. [PMID: 34239541 PMCID: PMC8258418 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2021.675686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2021] [Accepted: 05/04/2021] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Maintenance of genomic integrity is critical for the perpetuation of all forms of life including humans. Living organisms are constantly exposed to stress from internal metabolic processes and external environmental sources causing damage to the DNA, thereby promoting genomic instability. To counter the deleterious effects of genomic instability, organisms have evolved general and specific DNA damage repair (DDR) pathways that act either independently or mutually to repair the DNA damage. The mechanisms by which various DNA repair pathways are activated have been fairly investigated in model organisms including bacteria, fungi, and mammals; however, very little is known regarding how plants sense and repair DNA damage. Plants being sessile are innately exposed to a wide range of DNA-damaging agents both from biotic and abiotic sources such as ultraviolet rays or metabolic by-products. To escape their harmful effects, plants also harbor highly conserved DDR pathways that share several components with the DDR machinery of other organisms. Maintenance of genomic integrity is key for plant survival due to lack of reserve germline as the derivation of the new plant occurs from the meristem. Untowardly, the accumulation of mutations in the meristem will result in a wide range of genetic abnormalities in new plants affecting plant growth development and crop yield. In this review, we will discuss various DNA repair pathways in plants and describe how the deficiency of each repair pathway affects plant growth and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aamir Raina
- Mutation Breeding Laboratory, Department of Botany, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India
- Botany Section, Women’s College, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India
| | - Parmeshwar K. Sahu
- Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Indira Gandhi Agriculture University, Raipur, India
| | | | - Nitika Rajora
- National Agri-Food Biotechnology Institute, Mohali, India
| | - Richa Sao
- Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Indira Gandhi Agriculture University, Raipur, India
| | - Samiullah Khan
- Mutation Breeding Laboratory, Department of Botany, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India
| | - Rais A. Ganai
- Watson-Crick Centre for Molecular Medicine, Islamic University of Science and Technology, Awantipora, India
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