1
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Balourdas DI, Markl AM, Krämer A, Settanni G, Joerger AC. Structural basis of p53 inactivation by cavity-creating cancer mutations and its implications for the development of mutant p53 reactivators. Cell Death Dis 2024; 15:408. [PMID: 38862470 PMCID: PMC11166945 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-024-06739-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2023] [Revised: 05/05/2024] [Accepted: 05/10/2024] [Indexed: 06/13/2024]
Abstract
The cavity-creating p53 cancer mutation Y220C is an ideal paradigm for developing small-molecule drugs based on protein stabilization. Here, we have systematically analyzed the structural and stability effects of all oncogenic Tyr-to-Cys mutations (Y126C, Y163C, Y205C, Y220C, Y234C, and Y236C) in the p53 DNA-binding domain (DBD). They were all highly destabilizing, drastically lowering the melting temperature of the protein by 8-17 °C. In contrast, two non-cancerous mutations, Y103C and Y107C, had only a moderate effect on protein stability. Differential stabilization of the mutants upon treatment with the anticancer agent arsenic trioxide and stibogluconate revealed an interesting proximity effect. Crystallographic studies complemented by MD simulations showed that two of the mutations, Y234C and Y236C, create internal cavities of different size and shape, whereas the others induce unique surface lesions. The mutation-induced pockets in the Y126C and Y205C mutant were, however, relatively small compared with that of the already druggable Y220C mutant. Intriguingly, our structural studies suggest a pronounced plasticity of the mutation-induced pocket in the frequently occurring Y163C mutant, which may be exploited for the development of small-molecule stabilizers. We point out general principles for reactivating thermolabile cancer mutants and highlight special cases where mutant-specific drugs are needed for the pharmacological rescue of p53 function in tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dimitrios-Ilias Balourdas
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Goethe University, Max-von-Laue-Str. 9, 60438, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- Structural Genomics Consortium (SGC), Buchmann Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Max-von-Laue-Str. 15, 60438, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Anja M Markl
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Goethe University, Max-von-Laue-Str. 9, 60438, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Andreas Krämer
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Goethe University, Max-von-Laue-Str. 9, 60438, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- Structural Genomics Consortium (SGC), Buchmann Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Max-von-Laue-Str. 15, 60438, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Giovanni Settanni
- Faculty of Physics and Astronomy, Ruhr University Bochum, Universitätsstr. 150, 44801, Bochum, Germany
- Physics Department, University of Mainz, Staudingerweg 7, 55099, Mainz, Germany
| | - Andreas C Joerger
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Goethe University, Max-von-Laue-Str. 9, 60438, Frankfurt am Main, Germany.
- Structural Genomics Consortium (SGC), Buchmann Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Max-von-Laue-Str. 15, 60438, Frankfurt am Main, Germany.
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2
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Liu Y, Su Z, Tavana O, Gu W. Understanding the complexity of p53 in a new era of tumor suppression. Cancer Cell 2024; 42:946-967. [PMID: 38729160 PMCID: PMC11190820 DOI: 10.1016/j.ccell.2024.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2024] [Revised: 03/15/2024] [Accepted: 04/16/2024] [Indexed: 05/12/2024]
Abstract
p53 was discovered 45 years ago as an SV40 large T antigen binding protein, coded by the most frequently mutated TP53 gene in human cancers. As a transcription factor, p53 is tightly regulated by a rich network of post-translational modifications to execute its diverse functions in tumor suppression. Although early studies established p53-mediated cell-cycle arrest, apoptosis, and senescence as the classic barriers in cancer development, a growing number of new functions of p53 have been discovered and the scope of p53-mediated anti-tumor activity is largely expanded. Here, we review the complexity of different layers of p53 regulation, and the recent advance of the p53 pathway in metabolism, ferroptosis, immunity, and others that contribute to tumor suppression. We also discuss the challenge regarding how to activate p53 function specifically effective in inhibiting tumor growth without harming normal homeostasis for cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanqing Liu
- Institute for Cancer Genetics, and Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Vagelos College of Physicians & Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Zhenyi Su
- Institute for Cancer Genetics, and Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Vagelos College of Physicians & Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Omid Tavana
- Institute for Cancer Genetics, and Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Vagelos College of Physicians & Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Wei Gu
- Institute for Cancer Genetics, and Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Vagelos College of Physicians & Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA; Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Vagelos College of Physicians & Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA.
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3
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Zhao Y, Chen W, Yu J, Pei S, Zhang Q, Shi J, Huang H, Zhao Y. TP53 in MDS and AML: Biological and clinical advances. Cancer Lett 2024; 588:216767. [PMID: 38417666 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2024.216767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2023] [Revised: 02/16/2024] [Accepted: 02/24/2024] [Indexed: 03/01/2024]
Abstract
Recently, the WHO-5 and the ICC 2022 criteria have emphasized poor prognosis in AML/MDS patients with multi-hit TP53 mutations, whereas mutated TP53 plays a critical role in tumorigenesis, drawing substantial interest in exploring its biological behaviors. Diverse characteristics of TP53 mutations, including types, VAF, CNVs, allelic status, karyotypes, and concurrent mutations have been extensively studied. Novel potential targets and comprehensive treatment strategies nowadays are under swift development, owing to great advances in technology. However, accurately predicting prognosis of patients with TP53-mutated myeloid neoplasms remains challenging. And there is still a lack of effective treatment for those patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yeqian Zhao
- Bone Marrow Transplantation Center, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, 310009, China; Liangzhu Laboratory, Zhejiang University Medical Center, Hangzhou, 311121, China; Institute of Hematology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China; Zhejiang Province Engineering Laboratory for Stem Cell and Immunity Therapy, Hangzhou, China
| | - Weihao Chen
- Bone Marrow Transplantation Center, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, 310009, China
| | - Jing Yu
- Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Shanshan Pei
- Bone Marrow Transplantation Center, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, 310009, China; Liangzhu Laboratory, Zhejiang University Medical Center, Hangzhou, 311121, China; Institute of Hematology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China; Zhejiang Province Engineering Laboratory for Stem Cell and Immunity Therapy, Hangzhou, China
| | | | - Jimin Shi
- Bone Marrow Transplantation Center, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, 310009, China; Liangzhu Laboratory, Zhejiang University Medical Center, Hangzhou, 311121, China; Institute of Hematology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China; Zhejiang Province Engineering Laboratory for Stem Cell and Immunity Therapy, Hangzhou, China
| | - He Huang
- Bone Marrow Transplantation Center, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, 310009, China; Liangzhu Laboratory, Zhejiang University Medical Center, Hangzhou, 311121, China; Institute of Hematology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China; Zhejiang Province Engineering Laboratory for Stem Cell and Immunity Therapy, Hangzhou, China.
| | - Yanmin Zhao
- Bone Marrow Transplantation Center, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, 310009, China; Liangzhu Laboratory, Zhejiang University Medical Center, Hangzhou, 311121, China; Institute of Hematology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China; Zhejiang Province Engineering Laboratory for Stem Cell and Immunity Therapy, Hangzhou, China.
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4
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Xiao S, Shi F, Song H, Cui J, Zheng D, Zhang H, Tan K, Wu J, Chen X, Wu J, Tang Y, Dai Y, Lu M. Characterization of the generic mutant p53-rescue compounds in a broad range of assays. Cancer Cell 2024; 42:325-327. [PMID: 38402608 DOI: 10.1016/j.ccell.2024.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2023] [Revised: 11/30/2023] [Accepted: 01/17/2024] [Indexed: 02/27/2024]
Abstract
Dozens of compounds that rescue tumor-associated mutant p53 have been reported. Xiao et al. perform 10 assays to evaluate effectiveness of the mutant p53-rescue compounds side-by-side but do not detect reliable rescue in any assay for the evaluated compounds, except for ATO and its analog PAT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shujun Xiao
- Shanghai Institute of Hematology, State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, National Research Center for Translational Medicine at Shanghai, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China; School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Fangfang Shi
- Shanghai Institute of Hematology, State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, National Research Center for Translational Medicine at Shanghai, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Huaxin Song
- Shanghai Institute of Hematology, State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, National Research Center for Translational Medicine at Shanghai, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Jingyi Cui
- Shanghai Institute of Hematology, State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, National Research Center for Translational Medicine at Shanghai, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China; School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Derun Zheng
- Shanghai Institute of Hematology, State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, National Research Center for Translational Medicine at Shanghai, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Hesong Zhang
- Shanghai Institute of Hematology, State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, National Research Center for Translational Medicine at Shanghai, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Kai Tan
- Shanghai Institute of Hematology, State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, National Research Center for Translational Medicine at Shanghai, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Jiaqi Wu
- Shanghai Institute of Hematology, State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, National Research Center for Translational Medicine at Shanghai, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Xueqin Chen
- Shanghai Institute of Hematology, State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, National Research Center for Translational Medicine at Shanghai, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Jiale Wu
- Shanghai Institute of Hematology, State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, National Research Center for Translational Medicine at Shanghai, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Yigang Tang
- Shanghai Institute of Hematology, State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, National Research Center for Translational Medicine at Shanghai, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Yuting Dai
- Shanghai Institute of Hematology, State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, National Research Center for Translational Medicine at Shanghai, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.
| | - Min Lu
- Shanghai Institute of Hematology, State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, National Research Center for Translational Medicine at Shanghai, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.
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5
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Peuget S, Zhou X, Selivanova G. Translating p53-based therapies for cancer into the clinic. Nat Rev Cancer 2024; 24:192-215. [PMID: 38287107 DOI: 10.1038/s41568-023-00658-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/12/2023] [Indexed: 01/31/2024]
Abstract
Inactivation of the most important tumour suppressor gene TP53 occurs in most, if not all, human cancers. Loss of functional wild-type p53 is achieved via two main mechanisms: mutation of the gene leading to an absence of tumour suppressor activity and, in some cases, gain-of-oncogenic function; or inhibition of the wild-type p53 protein mediated by overexpression of its negative regulators MDM2 and MDMX. Because of its high potency as a tumour suppressor and the dependence of at least some established tumours on its inactivation, p53 appears to be a highly attractive target for the development of new anticancer drugs. However, p53 is a transcription factor and therefore has long been considered undruggable. Nevertheless, several innovative strategies have been pursued for targeting dysfunctional p53 for cancer treatment. In mutant p53-expressing tumours, the predominant strategy is to restore tumour suppressor function with compounds acting either in a generic manner or otherwise selective for one or a few specific p53 mutations. In addition, approaches to deplete mutant p53 or to target vulnerabilities created by mutant p53 expression are currently under development. In wild-type p53 tumours, the major approach is to protect p53 from the actions of MDM2 and MDMX by targeting these negative regulators with inhibitors. Although the results of at least some clinical trials of MDM2 inhibitors and mutant p53-restoring compounds are promising, none of the agents has yet been approved by the FDA. Alternative strategies, based on a better understanding of p53 biology, the mechanisms of action of compounds and treatment regimens as well as the development of new technologies are gaining interest, such as proteolysis-targeting chimeras for MDM2 degradation. Other approaches are taking advantage of the progress made in immune-based therapies for cancer. In this Review, we present these ongoing clinical trials and emerging approaches to re-evaluate the current state of knowledge of p53-based therapies for cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sylvain Peuget
- Department of Microbiology, Tumour and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Xiaolei Zhou
- Institute of Bioengineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
- Institute of Materials Science and Engineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Galina Selivanova
- Department of Microbiology, Tumour and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.
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6
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Tuval A, Strandgren C, Heldin A, Palomar-Siles M, Wiman KG. Pharmacological reactivation of p53 in the era of precision anticancer medicine. Nat Rev Clin Oncol 2024; 21:106-120. [PMID: 38102383 DOI: 10.1038/s41571-023-00842-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/23/2023] [Indexed: 12/17/2023]
Abstract
p53, which is encoded by the most frequently mutated gene in cancer, TP53, is an attractive target for novel cancer therapies. Despite major challenges associated with this approach, several compounds that either augment the activity of wild-type p53 or restore all, or some, of the wild-type functions to p53 mutants are currently being explored. In wild-type TP53 cancer cells, p53 function is often abrogated by overexpression of the negative regulator MDM2, and agents that disrupt p53-MDM2 binding can trigger a robust p53 response, albeit potentially with induction of p53 activity in non-malignant cells. In TP53-mutant cancer cells, compounds that promote the refolding of missense mutant p53 or the translational readthrough of nonsense mutant TP53 might elicit potent cell death. Some of these compounds have been, or are being, tested in clinical trials involving patients with various types of cancer. Nonetheless, no p53-targeting drug has so far been approved for clinical use. Advances in our understanding of p53 biology provide some clues as to the underlying reasons for the variable clinical activity of p53-restoring therapies seen thus far. In this Review, we discuss the intricate interactions between p53 and its cellular and microenvironmental contexts and factors that can influence p53's activity. We also propose several strategies for improving the clinical efficacy of these agents through the complex perspective of p53 functionality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amos Tuval
- Karolinska Institutet, Department of Oncology-Pathology, Stockholm, Sweden
| | | | - Angelos Heldin
- Karolinska Institutet, Department of Oncology-Pathology, Stockholm, Sweden
| | | | - Klas G Wiman
- Karolinska Institutet, Department of Oncology-Pathology, Stockholm, Sweden.
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7
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Liang Y, An Q, Song H, Tang Y, Xiao S, Wu J, Yan N, Yu B, Cao X, Lu M. AcGlcAs: A Novel P53-Targeting Arsenical with Potent Cellular Uptake and Cancer Cell Selectivity. J Med Chem 2023; 66:16579-16596. [PMID: 38069817 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.3c00104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2023]
Abstract
Arsenic trioxide (ATO) targets PML/RARα and leads to miraculous success in treating acute promyelocytic leukemia. Notably, ATO also targets p53, the most frequently mutated protein in cancers, through a similar binding mechanism. However, p53-targeting ATO trials are challenging due to the poor cellular uptake and cancer selectivity of ATO. Here, we analyzed the structure-activity relationship of arsenicals and rationally developed a novel arsenical (designated AcGlcAs) by conjugating arsenic to sulfur atoms and tetraacetyl-β-d-thioglucose. AcGlcAs exhibited remarkable cellular uptake through a thiol-mediated pathway (maximally 127-fold higher than ATO), thereby potently targeting PML/RARα and mutant p53. Among the 55 tested cell lines, AcGlcAs preferentially killed cancer lines rather than normal lines. In preclinical studies, AcGlcAs significantly extended the survival of mice bearing a xenograft tumor with p53 mutation while showing high plasma stability and oral bioavailability. Thus, AcGlcAs is a potential clinical candidate for precisely treating numerous p53-mutated cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Liang
- Shanghai Institute of Hematology, State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, National Research Center for Translational Medicine (Shanghai), Ruijin Hospital affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200025, China
| | - Quanlin An
- Institute of Clinical Science, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, 180 Fenglin Road, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Huaxin Song
- Shanghai Institute of Hematology, State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, National Research Center for Translational Medicine (Shanghai), Ruijin Hospital affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200025, China
| | - Yigang Tang
- Shanghai Institute of Hematology, State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, National Research Center for Translational Medicine (Shanghai), Ruijin Hospital affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200025, China
| | - Shujun Xiao
- Shanghai Institute of Hematology, State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, National Research Center for Translational Medicine (Shanghai), Ruijin Hospital affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200025, China
| | - Jiale Wu
- Shanghai Institute of Hematology, State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, National Research Center for Translational Medicine (Shanghai), Ruijin Hospital affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200025, China
| | - Ni Yan
- Shanghai Institute of Hematology, State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, National Research Center for Translational Medicine (Shanghai), Ruijin Hospital affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200025, China
| | - Biao Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Bio-organic and Natural Products Chemistry, Center for Excellence in Molecular Synthesis, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 345 Lingling Road, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Xin Cao
- Institute of Clinical Science, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, 180 Fenglin Road, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Min Lu
- Shanghai Institute of Hematology, State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, National Research Center for Translational Medicine (Shanghai), Ruijin Hospital affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200025, China
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8
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Li J, Xiao S, Shi F, Song H, Wu J, Zheng D, Chen X, Tan K, Lu M. Arsenic trioxide extends survival of Li-Fraumeni syndrome mimicking mouse. Cell Death Dis 2023; 14:783. [PMID: 38030599 PMCID: PMC10687230 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-023-06281-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2023] [Revised: 10/28/2023] [Accepted: 11/06/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023]
Abstract
Li-Fraumeni syndrome (LFS) is characterized by germline mutations occurring on one allele of genome guardian TP53. It is a severe cancer predisposition syndrome with a poor prognosis, partly due to the frequent development of subsequent primary tumors following DNA-damaging therapies. Here we explored, for the first time, the effectiveness of mutant p53 rescue compound in treating LFS-mimicking mice harboring a deleterious p53 mutation. Among the ten p53 hotspot mutations in IARC LFS cohorts, R282W is one of the mutations predicting the poorest survival prognosis and the earliest tumor onset. Among the six clinical-stage mutant p53 rescue compounds, arsenic trioxide (ATO) effectively restored transactivation activity to p53-R282W. We thus constructed a heterozygous Trp53 R279W (corresponding to human R282W) mouse model for the ATO treatment study. The p53R279W/+ (W/+) mice exhibited tumor onset and overall survival well mimicking the ones of human LFS. Further, 35 mg/L ATO addition in drink water significantly extended the median survival of W/+ mice (from 460 to 596 days, hazard ratio = 0.4003, P = 0.0008). In the isolated tumors from ATO-treated W/+ mice, the representative p53 targets including Cdkn1a, Mdm2, and Tigar were significantly upregulated, accompanying with a decreased level of the proliferation marker Ki67 and increased level of apoptosis marker TUNEL. Together, the non-genotoxic treatment of p53 rescue compound ATO holds promise as an alternative for LFS therapeutic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiabing Li
- Shanghai Institute of Hematology, State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, National Research Center for Translational Medicine (Shanghai), Ruijin Hospital affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200025, China
| | - Shujun Xiao
- School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Fangfang Shi
- Shanghai Institute of Hematology, State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, National Research Center for Translational Medicine (Shanghai), Ruijin Hospital affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200025, China
| | - Huaxin Song
- Shanghai Institute of Hematology, State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, National Research Center for Translational Medicine (Shanghai), Ruijin Hospital affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200025, China
| | - Jiaqi Wu
- Shanghai Institute of Hematology, State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, National Research Center for Translational Medicine (Shanghai), Ruijin Hospital affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200025, China
| | - Derun Zheng
- Shanghai Institute of Hematology, State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, National Research Center for Translational Medicine (Shanghai), Ruijin Hospital affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200025, China
| | - Xueqin Chen
- Shanghai Institute of Hematology, State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, National Research Center for Translational Medicine (Shanghai), Ruijin Hospital affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200025, China
| | - Kai Tan
- Shanghai Institute of Hematology, State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, National Research Center for Translational Medicine (Shanghai), Ruijin Hospital affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200025, China
| | - Min Lu
- Shanghai Institute of Hematology, State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, National Research Center for Translational Medicine (Shanghai), Ruijin Hospital affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200025, China.
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9
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Liu Q, Li L, Yu Y, Wei G. Elucidating the Mechanisms of R248Q Mutation-Enhanced p53 Aggregation and Its Inhibition by Resveratrol. J Phys Chem B 2023; 127:7708-7720. [PMID: 37665658 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.3c04700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/06/2023]
Abstract
Aggregation of p53 mutants can result in loss-of-function, gain-of-function, and dominant-negative effects that contribute to tumor growth. Revealing the mechanisms underlying mutation-enhanced p53 aggregation and dissecting how small molecule inhibitors prevent the conversion of p53 into aggregation-primed conformations are fundamentally important for the development of novel therapeutics for p53 aggregation-associated cancers. A recent experimental study shows that resveratrol (RSV) has an inhibitory effect on the aggregation of hot-spot R248Q mutant of the p53 core domain (p53C), while pterostilbene (PT) exhibits a relatively poor inhibitory efficacy. However, the conformational properties of the R248Q mutant leading to its enhanced aggregation propensity and the inhibitory mechanism of RSV against p53C aggregation are not well understood. Herein, we performed extensive all-atom molecular dynamics simulations on R248Q p53C in the absence and presence of RSV/PT, as well as wild-type (WT) p53C. Our simulations reveal that loop L3, where the mutation resides, remains compact in WT p53C, while it becomes extended in the R248Q mutant. The extension of loop L3 weakens the interactions between loop L3 and two crucial aggregation-prone regions (APRs) of p53C, leading to impaired interactions within the APRs and their structural destabilization as well as p53C. The destabilized APRs in the R248Q mutant are more exposed than in WT p53C, which is conducive to p53C aggregation. RSV has a higher preference to bind to R248Q p53C than PT. This binding not only stabilizes loop L3 of R248Q mutant to its WT-like conformation, preventing L3-extension-caused APRs' destabilization but also reduces APRs' solvent exposure, thereby inhibiting R248Q p53C aggregation. However, PT exhibits a lower hydrogen-bonding capability and a higher self-association propensity, which would lead to a reduced p53C binding and a weakened inhibitory effect on R248Q mutant aggregation. Our study provides mechanistic insights into the R248Q mutation-enhanced aggregation propensity and RSV's potent inhibition against R248Q p53C aggregation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian Liu
- Department of Physics, State Key Laboratory of Surface Physics, and Key Laboratory for Computational Physical Sciences (Ministry of Education), Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, People's Republic of China
| | - Le Li
- Department of Physics, State Key Laboratory of Surface Physics, and Key Laboratory for Computational Physical Sciences (Ministry of Education), Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, People's Republic of China
| | - Yawei Yu
- Department of Physics, State Key Laboratory of Surface Physics, and Key Laboratory for Computational Physical Sciences (Ministry of Education), Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, People's Republic of China
| | - Guanghong Wei
- Department of Physics, State Key Laboratory of Surface Physics, and Key Laboratory for Computational Physical Sciences (Ministry of Education), Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, People's Republic of China
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10
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Lu Y, Wu M, Xu Y, Yu L. The Development of p53-Targeted Therapies for Human Cancers. Cancers (Basel) 2023; 15:3560. [PMID: 37509223 PMCID: PMC10377496 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15143560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2023] [Revised: 06/27/2023] [Accepted: 06/29/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
p53 plays a critical role in tumor suppression and is the most frequently mutated gene in human cancers. Most p53 mutants (mutp53) are missense mutations and are thus expressed in human cancers. In human cancers that retain wtp53, the wtp53 activities are downregulated through multiple mechanisms. For example, the overexpression of the negative regulators of p53, MDM2/MDMX, can also efficiently destabilize and inactivate wtp53. Therefore, both wtp53 and mutp53 have become promising and intensively explored therapeutic targets for cancer treatment. Current efforts include the development of small molecule compounds to disrupt the interaction between wtp53 and MDM2/MDMX in human cancers expressing wtp53 and to restore wtp53-like activity to p53 mutants in human cancers expressing mutp53. In addition, a synthetic lethality approach has been applied to identify signaling pathways affected by p53 dysfunction, which, when targeted, can lead to cell death. While an intensive search for p53-targeted cancer therapy has produced potential candidates with encouraging preclinical efficacy data, it remains challenging to develop such drugs with good efficacy and safety profiles. A more in-depth understanding of the mechanisms of action of these p53-targeting drugs will help to overcome these challenges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yier Lu
- Department of Medical Oncology, Key Laboratory of Cancer Prevention and Intervention, Ministry of Education, The Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310009, China
| | - Meng Wu
- Department of Medical Oncology, Key Laboratory of Cancer Prevention and Intervention, Ministry of Education, The Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310009, China
| | - Yang Xu
- Department of Cardiology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Cardiovascular Key Lab of Zhejiang Province, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310009, China
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Lili Yu
- Department of Medical Oncology, Key Laboratory of Cancer Prevention and Intervention, Ministry of Education, The Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310009, China
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11
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Silva JL, Foguel D, Ferreira VF, Vieira TCRG, Marques MA, Ferretti GDS, Outeiro TF, Cordeiro Y, de Oliveira GAP. Targeting Biomolecular Condensation and Protein Aggregation against Cancer. Chem Rev 2023. [PMID: 37379327 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.3c00131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/30/2023]
Abstract
Biomolecular condensates, membrane-less entities arising from liquid-liquid phase separation, hold dichotomous roles in health and disease. Alongside their physiological functions, these condensates can transition to a solid phase, producing amyloid-like structures implicated in degenerative diseases and cancer. This review thoroughly examines the dual nature of biomolecular condensates, spotlighting their role in cancer, particularly concerning the p53 tumor suppressor. Given that over half of the malignant tumors possess mutations in the TP53 gene, this topic carries profound implications for future cancer treatment strategies. Notably, p53 not only misfolds but also forms biomolecular condensates and aggregates analogous to other protein-based amyloids, thus significantly influencing cancer progression through loss-of-function, negative dominance, and gain-of-function pathways. The exact molecular mechanisms underpinning the gain-of-function in mutant p53 remain elusive. However, cofactors like nucleic acids and glycosaminoglycans are known to be critical players in this intersection between diseases. Importantly, we reveal that molecules capable of inhibiting mutant p53 aggregation can curtail tumor proliferation and migration. Hence, targeting phase transitions to solid-like amorphous and amyloid-like states of mutant p53 offers a promising direction for innovative cancer diagnostics and therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerson L Silva
- Institute of Medical Biochemistry Leopoldo de Meis, National Institute of Science and Technology for Structural Biology and Bioimaging, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21941-902, Brazil
| | - Debora Foguel
- Institute of Medical Biochemistry Leopoldo de Meis, National Institute of Science and Technology for Structural Biology and Bioimaging, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21941-902, Brazil
| | - Vitor F Ferreira
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Fluminense Federal University (UFF), Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21941-902, Brazil
| | - Tuane C R G Vieira
- Institute of Medical Biochemistry Leopoldo de Meis, National Institute of Science and Technology for Structural Biology and Bioimaging, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21941-902, Brazil
| | - Mayra A Marques
- Institute of Medical Biochemistry Leopoldo de Meis, National Institute of Science and Technology for Structural Biology and Bioimaging, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21941-902, Brazil
| | - Giulia D S Ferretti
- Institute of Medical Biochemistry Leopoldo de Meis, National Institute of Science and Technology for Structural Biology and Bioimaging, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21941-902, Brazil
| | - Tiago F Outeiro
- Department of Experimental Neurodegeneration, Center for Biostructural Imaging of Neurodegeneration, University Medical Center, 37075 Göttingen, Germany
- Max Planck Institute for Multidisciplinary Sciences, 37075 Göttingen, Germany
- Translational and Clinical Research Institute, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, Framlington Place, Newcastle Upon Tyne NE2 4HH, U.K
- Scientific employee with an honorary contract at Deutsches Zentrum für Neurodegenerative Erkrankungen (DZNE), 37075 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Yraima Cordeiro
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21941-902, Brazil
| | - Guilherme A P de Oliveira
- Institute of Medical Biochemistry Leopoldo de Meis, National Institute of Science and Technology for Structural Biology and Bioimaging, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21941-902, Brazil
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12
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Shen J, Wang Q, Mao Y, Gao W, Duan S. Targeting the p53 signaling pathway in cancers: Molecular mechanisms and clinical studies. MedComm (Beijing) 2023; 4:e288. [PMID: 37256211 PMCID: PMC10225743 DOI: 10.1002/mco2.288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2022] [Revised: 04/25/2023] [Accepted: 05/08/2023] [Indexed: 06/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Tumor suppressor p53 can transcriptionally activate downstream genes in response to stress, and then regulate the cell cycle, DNA repair, metabolism, angiogenesis, apoptosis, and other biological responses. p53 has seven functional domains and 12 splice isoforms, and different domains and subtypes play different roles. The activation and inactivation of p53 are finely regulated and are associated with phosphorylation/acetylation modification and ubiquitination modification, respectively. Abnormal activation of p53 is closely related to the occurrence and development of cancer. While targeted therapy of the p53 signaling pathway is still in its early stages and only a few drugs or treatments have entered clinical trials, the development of new drugs and ongoing clinical trials are expected to lead to the widespread use of p53 signaling-targeted therapy in cancer treatment in the future. TRIAP1 is a novel p53 downstream inhibitor of apoptosis. TRIAP1 is the homolog of yeast mitochondrial intermembrane protein MDM35, which can play a tumor-promoting role by blocking the mitochondria-dependent apoptosis pathway. This work provides a systematic overview of recent basic research and clinical progress in the p53 signaling pathway and proposes that TRIAP1 is an important therapeutic target downstream of p53 signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinze Shen
- Key Laboratory of Novel Targets and Drug Study for Neural Repair of Zhejiang ProvinceSchool of MedicineHangzhou City UniversityHangzhouZhejiangChina
| | - Qurui Wang
- Key Laboratory of Novel Targets and Drug Study for Neural Repair of Zhejiang ProvinceSchool of MedicineHangzhou City UniversityHangzhouZhejiangChina
| | - Yunan Mao
- Key Laboratory of Novel Targets and Drug Study for Neural Repair of Zhejiang ProvinceSchool of MedicineHangzhou City UniversityHangzhouZhejiangChina
| | - Wei Gao
- Key Laboratory of Novel Targets and Drug Study for Neural Repair of Zhejiang ProvinceSchool of MedicineHangzhou City UniversityHangzhouZhejiangChina
| | - Shiwei Duan
- Key Laboratory of Novel Targets and Drug Study for Neural Repair of Zhejiang ProvinceSchool of MedicineHangzhou City UniversityHangzhouZhejiangChina
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13
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Fallatah MMJ, Law FV, Chow WA, Kaiser P. Small-molecule correctors and stabilizers to target p53. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2023; 44:274-289. [PMID: 36964053 PMCID: PMC10511064 DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2023.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2023] [Revised: 02/26/2023] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 03/26/2023]
Abstract
The tumor suppressor p53 is the most frequently mutated protein in human cancer and tops the list of high-value precision oncology targets. p53 prevents initiation and progression of cancer by inducing cell-cycle arrest and various forms of cell death. Tumors have thus evolved ways to inactivate p53, mainly by TP53 mutations or by hyperactive p53 degradation. This review focuses on two types of p53 targeting compounds, MDM2 antagonists and mutant p53 correctors. MDM2 inhibitors prevent p53 protein degradation, while correctors restore tumor suppressor activity of p53 mutants by enhancing thermodynamic stability. Herein we explore both novel and repurposed p53 targeting compounds, discuss their mode of action, and examine the challenges in advancing them to the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maryam M J Fallatah
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA; Chao Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Fiona V Law
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA; Chao Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Warren A Chow
- Chao Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA; Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Peter Kaiser
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA; Chao Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA.
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14
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Shi XJ, Yao CG, Li HL, Wei YH, Hu KH. Chromosome hyperploidy induced by chronic hepatitis B virus infection and its targeted therapeutic strategy. Shijie Huaren Xiaohua Zazhi 2023; 31:299-306. [DOI: 10.11569/wcjd.v31.i8.299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection induces chromosomal hyperploidy (including aneuploidy and polyploidy) and chromosomal instability in hepatocytes, which is one of the main causes of primary hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Although hepatocytes can regulate polyploidization of chromosomes under normal conditions, it is difficult to regulate hyperploidization caused by HBV infection and thus carcinogenesis. Studies have shown that HBV can cause dysregulation of many signal pathways such as PLK1/PRC1, and induce chromosome hyperploidy and malignant transformation of hepatocytes. Herein we review the mechanism of HBV infection-induced chromosomal hyperploidy of hepatocytes to cuase hepatocarcinogenesis and the advances in research of drugs targeting chromosomal hyperploidy.
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15
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Wang H, Guo M, Wei H, Chen Y. Targeting p53 pathways: mechanisms, structures, and advances in therapy. Signal Transduct Target Ther 2023; 8:92. [PMID: 36859359 PMCID: PMC9977964 DOI: 10.1038/s41392-023-01347-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 93.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2022] [Revised: 12/19/2022] [Accepted: 02/07/2023] [Indexed: 03/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The TP53 tumor suppressor is the most frequently altered gene in human cancers, and has been a major focus of oncology research. The p53 protein is a transcription factor that can activate the expression of multiple target genes and plays critical roles in regulating cell cycle, apoptosis, and genomic stability, and is widely regarded as the "guardian of the genome". Accumulating evidence has shown that p53 also regulates cell metabolism, ferroptosis, tumor microenvironment, autophagy and so on, all of which contribute to tumor suppression. Mutations in TP53 not only impair its tumor suppressor function, but also confer oncogenic properties to p53 mutants. Since p53 is mutated and inactivated in most malignant tumors, it has been a very attractive target for developing new anti-cancer drugs. However, until recently, p53 was considered an "undruggable" target and little progress has been made with p53-targeted therapies. Here, we provide a systematic review of the diverse molecular mechanisms of the p53 signaling pathway and how TP53 mutations impact tumor progression. We also discuss key structural features of the p53 protein and its inactivation by oncogenic mutations. In addition, we review the efforts that have been made in p53-targeted therapies, and discuss the challenges that have been encountered in clinical development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haolan Wang
- Department of Oncology, NHC Key Laboratory of Cancer Proteomics, Laboratory of Structural Biology, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410008, China
| | - Ming Guo
- Department of Oncology, NHC Key Laboratory of Cancer Proteomics, Laboratory of Structural Biology, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410008, China
| | - Hudie Wei
- Department of Oncology, NHC Key Laboratory of Cancer Proteomics, Laboratory of Structural Biology, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410008, China.
| | - Yongheng Chen
- Department of Oncology, NHC Key Laboratory of Cancer Proteomics, Laboratory of Structural Biology, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410008, China.
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16
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Stephenson Clarke J, Douglas LR, Duriez PJ, Balourdas DI, Joerger AC, Khadiullina R, Bulatov E, Baud MGJ. Discovery of Nanomolar-Affinity Pharmacological Chaperones Stabilizing the Oncogenic p53 Mutant Y220C. ACS Pharmacol Transl Sci 2022; 5:1169-1180. [PMID: 36407959 PMCID: PMC9667543 DOI: 10.1021/acsptsci.2c00164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The tumor suppressor protein p53 is inactivated in the majority of human cancers and remains a prime target for developing new drugs to reactivate its tumor suppressing activity for anticancer therapies. The oncogenic p53 mutant Y220C accounts for approximately 125,000 new cancer cases per annum and is one of the most prevalent p53 mutants overall. It harbors a narrow, mutationally induced pocket at the surface of the DNA-binding domain that destabilizes p53, leading to its rapid denaturation and aggregation. Here, we present the structure-guided development of high-affinity small molecules stabilizing p53-Y220C in vitro, along with the synthetic routes developed in the process, in vitro structure-activity relationship data, and confirmation of their binding mode by protein X-ray crystallography. We disclose two new chemical probes displaying sub-micromolar binding affinity in vitro, marking an important milestone since the discovery of the first small-molecule ligand of Y220C in 2008. New chemical probe JC744 displayed a K d = 320 nM, along with potent in vitro protein stabilization. This study, therefore, represents a significant advance toward high-affinity Y220C ligands for clinical evaluation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph
R. Stephenson Clarke
- School of Chemistry and Institute for Life Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton SO17 1BJ, United Kingdom
| | - Leon R. Douglas
- Cancer
Research UK, Somers Building, University
Hospital Southampton, Tremona Road, Southampton SO16 6YD, United Kingdom
| | - Patrick J. Duriez
- Centre
for Cancer Immunology, University Hospital
Southampton, Coxford
Road, Southampton SO16
6YD, United Kingdom
| | - Dimitrios-Ilias Balourdas
- Institute
of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Johann Wolfgang
Goethe University, Max-von-Laue-Straße 9, 60438 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- Buchmann
Institute for Molecular Life Sciences and Structural Genomics Consortium, Max-von-Laue-Straße 15, 60438 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Andreas C. Joerger
- Institute
of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Johann Wolfgang
Goethe University, Max-von-Laue-Straße 9, 60438 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- Buchmann
Institute for Molecular Life Sciences and Structural Genomics Consortium, Max-von-Laue-Straße 15, 60438 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Raniya Khadiullina
- Institute
of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan
Federal University, Kazan 420008, Russia
| | - Emil Bulatov
- Institute
of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan
Federal University, Kazan 420008, Russia
| | - Matthias G. J. Baud
- School of Chemistry and Institute for Life Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton SO17 1BJ, United Kingdom
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