Development and validation of the Perceived Online Racism Scale short form (15 items) and very brief (six items)

Profiles of online racism exposure and mental health among Asian, Black, and Latinx emerging adults in the United States

Online racism is a digital social determinant to health inequity and an acute and widespread public health problem. To explore the heterogeneity of online racism exposure within and across race, we latent class modelled this construct among Asian (n = 310), Black (n = 306), and Latinx (n = 163) emerging adults in the United States and analysed key demographic and psychosocial health correlates. We observed Low and Mediated Exposure classes across all racial groups, whereas High Exposure classes appeared among Asian and Black people and the Systemic Exposure classes emerged uniquely in Asian and Latinx people. Generally, the High Exposure classes reported the greatest psychological distress and unjust views of society compared to all other classes. The Mediated and Systemic Exposure classes reported greater mental health costs than the Low Exposure classes. Asian women were more likely to be in the Mediated Exposure class compared to the Low Exposure class, whereas Black women were more likely to be in the Mediated Exposure class compared to both High and Low Exposure classes. About a third of each racial group belonged to the Low Exposure classes. Our findings highlight the multidimensionality of online racism exposure and identify hidden yet divergently risky subgroups. Research implications include examination of class membership chronicity and change over time, online exposure to intersecting oppressions, and additional antecedents and health consequences of diverse forms of online racism exposure.

Impact of Online Racism on Suicide Ideation Through Interpersonal Factors Among Racial Minority Emerging Adults: The Role of Perceived Burdensomeness and Thwarted Belongingness

While a growing number of studies have documented significant links between online racism (e.g., racist interactions, contents on racial violence) and comorbid factors (e.g., depression) associated with suicide risk, no studies have examined whether online racism predicts suicide ideation and if interpersonal factors can help explain this link. Thus, the current study examined the direct relationship between online racism and suicide ideation among racial minority emerging adults, and the indirect relationships via the interpersonal factors (perceived burdensomeness and thwarted belongingness). Using data from a convenience sample of 338 racial minority emerging adults, we conducted a path analysis with online racism predicting suicide ideation through thwarted belongingness and perceived burdensomeness. Online racism significantly predicted suicide ideation via perceived burdensomeness but not thwarted belongingness. Post hoc multi-group analysis found that this pathway was consistent across Black, Asian, and Latinx groups but was completely mediated for the Asian group. The findings suggest that online racism can increase feelings of being a burden to society, which can trigger thoughts of suicide. This process may be particularly salient among Asian individuals. Implications for future research are discussed.

Online racism, depressive and anxiety symptoms, coping-related drinking motives, and alcohol use severity among Black, Latina/o/x, and Asian emerging adults

Online racism has been associated with alcohol-related coping, likely to deal with mental health symptoms that arise from experiencing racial discrimination in online settings. Thus, we examined online racism as a risk factor for alcohol-related problems by examining depressive/anxiety symptoms and coping-related drinking motives as mediators among Black, Latina/o/x, and Asian emerging adults in the U.S. We hypothesized that online racism would be associated with greater alcohol use severity through depressive/anxiety symptoms and coping-related drinking motives sequentially. With data from 322 participants (Mage = 23.28; Black, n = 108; Latina/o/x, n = 118; and Asian, n = 96), we conducted a multi-group path analysis of online racism (Perceived Online Racism Scale) linked to alcohol use (Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test) via depressive (Patient Health Questionnaire-9)/Anxiety (Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7) symptoms and coping-related drinking motives (Drinking Motives Questionnaire-Revised Short Form). The hypothesized indirect pathway was significant in all groups. The direct effect was also significant for Latina/o/x and Asian groups. For the Black group, the direct effect was not significant, highlighting the salience of the mental health symptoms and drinking motives in explaining the link between online racism and alcohol use. Collectively, the results help to contextualize the risks of alcohol-related problems from experiencing contemporary forms of racial trauma such as online racial discrimination and provide implications for intervention development.

Online Racism, Rumination, and Vigilance: Impact on Distress, Loneliness, and Alcohol Use

We examined the potential anticipatory response (rumination, vigilance) associated with online racism and its impact on psychological distress, loneliness, and alcohol use severity. With a sample of 407 racial minority adults, we conducted a path analysis to examine the indirect relation of online racism on our outcome variables via online racism-related rumination and offline racism-related vigilance. Online racism was significantly linked to psychological distress, alcohol use severity, and loneliness. Rumination and vigilance explained significant indirect relations between online racism and psychological distress and loneliness. Only rumination explained the significant indirect relation between online racism and alcohol use severity. Posthoc multigroup analysis suggested that the path model estimates for the full sample applied equivalently to the African American/Black, Asian/Asian American, and Latinx/Hispanic American groups. Online racism is likely an unjust burden for racial minority individuals that may give rise to prolonged rumination and anticipation about facing racial discrimination in their offline world.