The Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacogenomics of Psychostimulants

Neurological Effects of Stimulants and Hallucinogens

In this article, we will discuss the history, pharmacodynamics, and neurotoxicity of psychostimulants and hallucinogens. The drugs discussed are widely used and have characteristic toxidromes and potential for neurological injuries with which the practicing clinician should be familiar. Psychostimulants are a class of drugs that includes cocaine, methamphetamine/amphetamines, and cathinones, among others, which produce a crescendoing euphoric high. Seizures, ischemic and hemorrhagic strokes, rhabdomyolysis, and a variety of movement disorders are commonly encountered in this class. Hallucinogens encompass a broad class of drugs, in which the user experiences hallucinations, altered sensorium, distorted perception, and cognitive dysfunction. The experience can be unpredictable and dysphoric, creating a profound sense of anxiety and panic in some cases. Recognizing the associated neurotoxicities and understanding the appropriate management is critical in caring for these patient populations. Several of these agents are not detectable by standard clinical laboratory analysis, making identification and diagnosis an even greater challenge.

Influence of psychostimulants on bone mineral density and content among children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. A systematic review

There is a controversy over the influence of psychostimulant medications on bone mineral density (BMD) and bone mineral content (BMC) among children with attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder (ADHD). The aim of the present systematic review was to assess the influence of psychostimulant medications on BMD and BMC among children with ADHD. A comprehensive search of electronic databases, including PubMed, Scopus, Embase, and Cochrane Library, was conducted to identify relevant studies published up until July 2023. Clinical studies that addressed the focused question "Do psychostimulant medications affect bone mineral density and content in children with ADHD?" were included. Letters to the Editor, studies on animal-models, ex-vivo and in-vitro studies, commentaries and reviews were excluded. The primary outcome measures were changes in BMD and BMC. Study quality was assessed using the risk of bias for non-randomized studies-exposure tool. Five non-randomized clinical studies were included. The number of participants ranged from 18 to 6489 with mean ages ranging from 7.3 to 13.75 years. The study durations ranged between five and seven years. In all studies osseous evaluation was done using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. The bone locations examined included total body, lumbar-spine, femur, femoral-neck, femoral body, and pelvis. Two studies reported that psychostimulant medications reduce BMC and BMD. In one study, bone turnover, serum leptin and fat levels were reduced in children using psychostimulant medications but no unusual reduction recorded among controls. In general, 80 % of the studies concluded that psychostimulant medications compromise BMC and BMD. Power analysis was done in one study. One study had a low RoB and the remaining demonstrated some concerns. Given the methodological concerns observed in the included studies, arriving at a definitive conclusion regarding the effects of psychostimulant medications on BMC, BMD, and bone turnover in children with ADHD is challenging. However, it is important to acknowledge that an association between psychostimulant medications and these bone-related parameters cannot be disregarded.

ADHD Adults Show Lower Interindividual Similarity in Ex-Gaussian Reaction Time Vectors for Congruent Stimuli Compared to Control Peers

OBJECTIVE

Interindividual similarity refers to how similarly individuals respond when receiving the same stimulus or intervention. In this study, we aimed to examine interindividual similarity in adults with ADHD.

METHOD

We used the cosine similarity index of ex-Gaussian reaction time (RT) vectors of mu, sigma, and tau parameters during a Stroop task.

RESULTS

Our results demonstrate that the ADHD group exhibits a reduced interindividual similarity index in their ex-Gaussian RT vectors for congruent stimuli compared to the healthy control group. Importantly, we did not find significant differences in the interindividual similarity index to incongruent stimuli between both groups, thus suggesting that this reduced index was selective for congruent stimuli.

CONCLUSION

Our findings highlight that ADHD adults exhibit more significant interindividual differences in cognitive functioning when processing congruent stimuli than healthy controls. These results provide new insights into the selective mechanisms underlying ADHD and may contribute to developing new targeted interventions for this disorder.

Substance Use and the Nervous System

OBJECTIVE

This article informs and updates the practicing neurologist on the current landscape of known neurologic injuries linked to the use of illicit drugs, focusing on emerging agents.

LATEST DEVELOPMENTS

Synthetic opioids such as fentanyl and similar derivatives have exploded in prevalence, becoming the leading cause of overdose fatalities. The higher potency of synthetic opioids compared with semisynthetic and nonsynthetic opiates poses an increased risk for unintentional overdose when found as an adulterant in other illicit drug supplies such as heroin. Conversely, misinformation about the risk of symptomatic exposure to fentanyl through casual contact with the skin and ambient air has led to misdirected fear and stigma that threatens to impede valid harm-reduction measures for fentanyl users at risk of actual overdose. Finally, during the COVID-19 pandemic, overdose rates and deaths continued to climb, especially among those who use opioids and methamphetamine.

ESSENTIAL POINTS

A variety of potential neurologic effects and injuries can occur with illicit drug use owing to the diverse properties and mechanisms of action of the various classes. Many high-risk agents are not detected on standard drug screens, including so-called designer drugs, and the practicing neurologist is best served by recognizing the clinical features of the traditional toxidrome and other potential idiosyncratic effects of various illicit agents.

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Animal Model Presents Retinal Alterations and Methylphenidate Has a Differential Effect in ADHD versus Control Conditions

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is one of the most prevalent neurodevelopmental disorders. Interestingly, children with ADHD seem to experience more ophthalmologic abnormalities, and the impact of methylphenidate (MPH) use on retinal physiology remains unclear. Thus, we aimed to unravel the retina's structural, functional, and cellular alterations and the impact of MPH in ADHD versus the control conditions. For that, spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) and Wistar Kyoto rats (WKY) were used as animal models of ADHD and the controls, respectively. Animals were divided into four experimental groups as follows: WKY vehicle (Veh; tap water), WKY MPH (1.5 mg/kg/day), SHR Veh, SHR MPH. Individual administration was performed by gavage between P28-P55. Retinal physiology and structure were evaluated at P56 followed by tissue collection and analysis. The ADHD animal model presents the retinal structural, functional, and neuronal deficits, as well as the microglial reactivity, astrogliosis, blood-retinal barrier (BRB) hyperpermeability and a pro-inflammatory status. In this model, MPH had a beneficial effect on reducing microgliosis, BRB dysfunction, and inflammatory response, but did not correct the neuronal and functional alterations in the retina. Curiously, in the control animals, MPH showed an opposite effect since it impaired the retinal function, neuronal cells, and BRB integrity, and also promoted both microglia reactivity and upregulation of pro-inflammatory mediators. This study unveils the retinal alterations in ADHD and the opposite effects induced by MPH in the retina of ADHD and the control animal models.