1
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Fancher AT, Hua Y, Close DA, Xu W, McDermott LA, Strock CJ, Santiago U, Camacho CJ, Johnston PA. Characterization of allosteric modulators that disrupt androgen receptor co-activator protein-protein interactions to alter transactivation-Drug leads for metastatic castration resistant prostate cancer. SLAS DISCOVERY : ADVANCING LIFE SCIENCES R & D 2023; 28:325-343. [PMID: 37549772 DOI: 10.1016/j.slasd.2023.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2023] [Revised: 07/06/2023] [Accepted: 08/04/2023] [Indexed: 08/09/2023]
Abstract
Three series of compounds were prioritized from a high content screening campaign that identified molecules that blocked dihydrotestosterone (DHT) induced formation of Androgen Receptor (AR) protein-protein interactions (PPIs) with the Transcriptional Intermediary Factor 2 (TIF2) coactivator and also disrupted preformed AR-TIF2 PPI complexes; the hydrobenzo-oxazepins (S1), thiadiazol-5-piperidine-carboxamides (S2), and phenyl-methyl-indoles (S3). Compounds from these series inhibited AR PPIs with TIF2 and SRC-1, another p160 coactivator, in mammalian 2-hybrid assays and blocked transcriptional activation in reporter assays driven by full length AR or AR-V7 splice variants. Compounds inhibited the growth of five prostate cancer cell lines, with many exhibiting differential cytotoxicity towards AR positive cell lines. Representative compounds from the 3 series substantially reduced both endogenous and DHT-enhanced expression and secretion of the prostate specific antigen (PSA) cancer biomarker in the C4-2 castration resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) cell line. The comparatively weak activities of series compounds in the H3-DHT and/or TIF2 box 3 LXXLL-peptide binding assays to the recombinant ligand binding domain of AR suggest that direct antagonism at the orthosteric ligand binding site or AF-2 surface respectively are unlikely mechanisms of action. Cellular enhanced thermal stability assays (CETSA) indicated that compounds engaged AR and reduced the maximum efficacy and right shifted the EC50 of DHT-enhanced AR thermal stabilization consistent with the effects of negative allosteric modulators. Molecular docking of potent representative hits from each series to AR structures suggest that S1-1 and S2-6 engage a novel binding pocket (BP-1) adjacent to the orthosteric ligand binding site, while S3-11 occupies the AR binding function 3 (BF-3) allosteric pocket. Hit binding poses indicate spaces and residues adjacent to the BP-1 and BF-3 pockets that will be exploited in future medicinal chemistry optimization studies. Small molecule allosteric modulators that prevent/disrupt AR PPIs with coactivators like TIF2 to alter transcriptional activation in the presence of orthosteric agonists might evade the resistance mechanisms to existing prostate cancer drugs and provide novel starting points for medicinal chemistry lead optimization and future development into therapies for metastatic CRPC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley T Fancher
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA; Nucleus Global, 2 Ravinia Drive, Suite 605, Atlanta, GA 30346, USA
| | - Yun Hua
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA
| | - David A Close
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA
| | - Wei Xu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA
| | - Lee A McDermott
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA; PsychoGenics Inc, 215 College Road, Paramus, NJ 07652, USA
| | | | - Ulises Santiago
- Department of Computational and Systems Biology, School of Medicine, at the University of Pittsburgh, USA
| | - Carlos J Camacho
- Department of Computational and Systems Biology, School of Medicine, at the University of Pittsburgh, USA
| | - Paul A Johnston
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA; University of Pittsburgh Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, PA 15232, USA.
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2
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Riley CM, Elwood JML, Henry MC, Hunter I, Daniel Lopez-Fernandez J, McEwan IJ, Jamieson C. Current and emerging approaches to noncompetitive AR inhibition. Med Res Rev 2023; 43:1701-1747. [PMID: 37062876 DOI: 10.1002/med.21961] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2022] [Revised: 03/14/2023] [Accepted: 03/28/2023] [Indexed: 04/18/2023]
Abstract
The androgen receptor (AR) has been shown to be a key determinant in the pathogenesis of castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). The current standard of care therapies targets the ligand-binding domain of the receptor and can afford improvements to life expectancy often only in the order of months before resistance occurs. Emerging preclinical and clinical compounds that inhibit receptor activity via differentiated mechanisms of action which are orthogonal to current antiandrogens show promise for overcoming treatment resistance. In this review, we present an authoritative summary of molecules that noncompetitively target the AR. Emerging small molecule strategies for targeting alternative domains of the AR represent a promising area of research that shows significant potential for future therapies. The overall quality of lead candidates in the area of noncompetitive AR inhibition is discussed, and it identifies the key chemotypes and associated properties which are likely to be, or are currently, positioned to be first in human applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher M Riley
- Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
| | - Jessica M L Elwood
- Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
| | - Martyn C Henry
- Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
| | - Irene Hunter
- Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK
| | | | - Iain J McEwan
- Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK
| | - Craig Jamieson
- Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
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3
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Xie S, Zhu J, Li J, Zhan F, Yao H, Xu J, Xu S. Small-Molecule Hydrophobic Tagging: A Promising Strategy of Druglike Technology for Targeted Protein Degradation. J Med Chem 2023; 66:10917-10933. [PMID: 37535706 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.3c00736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/05/2023]
Abstract
Targeted protein degradation (TPD) technologies have catalyzed a paradigm shift in therapeutic strategies and offer innovative avenues for drug design. Hydrophobic tags (HyTs) are bifunctional TPD molecules consisting of a ″lipophilic small-molecule tags″ group and a small-molecule ligand for the target protein. Despite the vast potential of HyTs, they have received relatively limited attention as a promising frontier. Leveraging their lower molecular weight and reduced numbers of hydrogen bond donors/acceptors (HBDs/HBAs) in comparison with proteolysis-targeting chimeras (PROTACs), HyTs present a compelling approach for enhancing druglike properties. In this Perspective, we explore the diverse range of HyT structures and their corresponding degradation mechanisms, thereby illuminating their broad applicability in targeting a diverse array of proteins, including previously elusive targets. Moreover, we scrutinize the challenges and opportunities entailed in developing this technology as a viable and fruitful strategy for drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaowen Xie
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, 639 Longmian Avenue, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211198, China
| | - Jingjie Zhu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, 639 Longmian Avenue, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211198, China
| | - Junda Li
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, 639 Longmian Avenue, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211198, China
| | - Feiyan Zhan
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, 639 Longmian Avenue, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211198, China
| | - Hong Yao
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, 639 Longmian Avenue, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211198, China
| | - Jinyi Xu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, 639 Longmian Avenue, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211198, China
| | - Shengtao Xu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, 639 Longmian Avenue, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211198, China
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, The First People's Hospital of Kunshan, Suzhou 215300, China
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4
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Kelm JM, Pandey DS, Malin E, Kansou H, Arora S, Kumar R, Gavande NS. PROTAC'ing oncoproteins: targeted protein degradation for cancer therapy. Mol Cancer 2023; 22:62. [PMID: 36991452 PMCID: PMC10061819 DOI: 10.1186/s12943-022-01707-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2022] [Accepted: 12/23/2022] [Indexed: 03/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Molecularly targeted cancer therapies substantially improve patient outcomes, although the durability of their effectiveness can be limited. Resistance to these therapies is often related to adaptive changes in the target oncoprotein which reduce binding affinity. The arsenal of targeted cancer therapies, moreover, lacks coverage of several notorious oncoproteins with challenging features for inhibitor development. Degraders are a relatively new therapeutic modality which deplete the target protein by hijacking the cellular protein destruction machinery. Degraders offer several advantages for cancer therapy including resiliency to acquired mutations in the target protein, enhanced selectivity, lower dosing requirements, and the potential to abrogate oncogenic transcription factors and scaffolding proteins. Herein, we review the development of proteolysis targeting chimeras (PROTACs) for selected cancer therapy targets and their reported biological activities. The medicinal chemistry of PROTAC design has been a challenging area of active research, but the recent advances in the field will usher in an era of rational degrader design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy M Kelm
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Eugene Applebaum College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences (EACPHS), Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, 48201, USA
| | - Deepti S Pandey
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Eugene Applebaum College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences (EACPHS), Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, 48201, USA
| | - Evan Malin
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Eugene Applebaum College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences (EACPHS), Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, 48201, USA
| | - Hussein Kansou
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Eugene Applebaum College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences (EACPHS), Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, 48201, USA
| | - Sahil Arora
- Laboratory for Drug Design and Synthesis, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Natural Products, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, 151401, India
| | - Raj Kumar
- Laboratory for Drug Design and Synthesis, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Natural Products, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, 151401, India
| | - Navnath S Gavande
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Eugene Applebaum College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences (EACPHS), Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, 48201, USA.
- Molecular Therapeutics Program, Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, 48201, USA.
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5
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Jia X, Han X. Targeting androgen receptor degradation with PROTACs from bench to bedside. Biomed Pharmacother 2023; 158:114112. [PMID: 36508999 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2022.114112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2022] [Revised: 11/29/2022] [Accepted: 12/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Inhibition of androgen receptor (AR) has been extensively investigated to treat prostate cancer. Resistance mechanisms such as increased levels of androgen production, increased AR gene, enhancer expression and AR point mutations always reduce the clinical efficacy. Design and discovery of small-molecule PROTAC AR degraders have been pursued as a new therapeutic strategy to overcome common resistance mechanisms developed during prostate cancer treatment. In the last two decades, potent and efficacious PROTAC AR degraders have been gotten rapid development and several such compounds have been advanced into preclinical phase and phase I/II trials for the treatment of human prostate cancers. Especially, the first PROTAC to enter the clinic, ARV-110, has shown good clinical effects in patients with mCRPC. This fully demonstrates the high clinical value of PROTAC strategy in treatment of human diseases. Here, we summarized the recent advances in the development of these potential clinical-stage PROTAC AR degraders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaojuan Jia
- The 2nd Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China
| | - Xin Han
- The 2nd Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China.; Institute of Translational Medicine, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310029, China..
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6
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Pranweerapaiboon K, Garon A, Seidel T, Janta S, Plubrukarn A, Chaithirayanon K, Langer T. In vitro and in silico studies of holothurin A on androgen receptor in prostate cancer. J Biomol Struct Dyn 2022; 40:12674-12682. [PMID: 34514975 DOI: 10.1080/07391102.2021.1975562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The androgen receptor (AR) plays a crucial role in the growth of prostate cancer, and has long been considered the cancer's primary strategic therapeutic target. However, despite the early susceptibility, patients receiving hormonal therapy targeting AR are likely to develops resistance to the treatment and progresses to the castration-resistant stage as a consequence of the mutation at the ligand binding pocket of AR. Interestingly, the surface pocket of the AR called binding function 3 (BF3) has been reported as a great benefit for treating a recurrent tumor. Herein, we investigate the potential of using a marine triterpenoid saponin, holothurin A, on targeting AR expression of prostate cancer using in vitro and in silico studies. Holothurin A reduced the PSA expression, leading to the growth inhibition of androgen sensitive prostate cancer cell line through a downregulation of AR activity. The molecular docking study demonstrated that holothurin A could bind strongly in the BF3 pocket by energetically favorable hydrogen acceptor and hydrophobic with a calculated binding affinity of -13.90 kcal/mol. Molecular dynamics simulations provided the additional evidence that holothurin A can form a stable complex with the BF3 pocket through the hydrophobic interactions with VAL676, ILE680, and ALA721. As a consequence, holothurin A modulates the activation function-2 (AF2) site of the AR through repositioning of the residues in the AF2 pocket. Targeting alternatives sites on the surface of AR via holothurin A will provide a potential candidate for future prostate cancer treatment.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kanta Pranweerapaiboon
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand.,Chulabhorn International College of Medicine, Thammasat University, Pathumthani, Thailand.,Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Arthur Garon
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Thomas Seidel
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Sirorat Janta
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Anuchit Plubrukarn
- Department of Pharmacognosy and Pharmaceutical Botany, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand
| | | | - Thierry Langer
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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7
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Radaeva M, Li H, LeBlanc E, Dalal K, Ban F, Ciesielski F, Chow B, Morin H, Awrey S, Singh K, Rennie PS, Lallous N, Cherkasov A. Structure-Based Study to Overcome Cross-Reactivity of Novel Androgen Receptor Inhibitors. Cells 2022; 11:cells11182785. [PMID: 36139361 PMCID: PMC9497135 DOI: 10.3390/cells11182785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2022] [Revised: 08/31/2022] [Accepted: 09/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The mutation-driven transformation of clinical anti-androgen drugs into agonists of the human androgen receptor (AR) represents a major challenge for the treatment of prostate cancer patients. To address this challenge, we have developed a novel class of inhibitors targeting the DNA-binding domain (DBD) of the receptor, which is distanced from the androgen binding site (ABS) targeted by all conventional anti-AR drugs and prone to resistant mutations. While many members of the developed 4-(4-phenylthiazol-2-yl)morpholine series of AR-DBD inhibitors demonstrated the effective suppression of wild-type AR, a few represented by 4-(4-(3-fluoro-2-methoxyphenyl)thiazol-2-yl)morpholine (VPC14368) exhibited a partial agonistic effect toward the mutated T878A form of the receptor, implying their cross-interaction with the AR ABS. To study the molecular basis of the observed cross-reactivity, we co-crystallized the T878A mutated form of the AR ligand binding domain (LBD) with a bound VPC14368 molecule. Computational modelling revealed that helix 12 of AR undergoes a characteristic shift upon VPC14368 binding causing the agonistic behaviour. Based on the obtained structural data we then designed derivatives of VPC14368 to successfully eliminate the cross-reactivity towards the AR ABS, while maintaining significant anti-AR DBD potency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariia Radaeva
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC V6H 3Z6, Canada
| | - Huifang Li
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC V6H 3Z6, Canada
| | - Eric LeBlanc
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC V6H 3Z6, Canada
| | - Kush Dalal
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC V6H 3Z6, Canada
| | - Fuqiang Ban
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC V6H 3Z6, Canada
| | | | - Bonny Chow
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC V6H 3Z6, Canada
| | - Helene Morin
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC V6H 3Z6, Canada
| | - Shannon Awrey
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC V6H 3Z6, Canada
| | - Kriti Singh
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC V6H 3Z6, Canada
| | - Paul S. Rennie
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC V6H 3Z6, Canada
| | - Nada Lallous
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC V6H 3Z6, Canada
- Correspondence: (N.L.); (A.C.)
| | - Artem Cherkasov
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC V6H 3Z6, Canada
- Correspondence: (N.L.); (A.C.)
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8
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Avgeris I, Pliatsika D, Nikolaropoulos SS, Fousteris MA. Targeting androgen receptor for prostate cancer therapy: From small molecules to PROTACs. Bioorg Chem 2022; 128:106089. [PMID: 35973305 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2022.106089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2022] [Revised: 07/30/2022] [Accepted: 08/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Prostate cancer (PCa) remains a serious type of cancer for men worldwide. The majority of new PCa cases are associated with androgen receptor (AR) hyperactivity. Various AR-targeting molecules that suppress its activity have been discovered. In this review, we present the already marketed antiandrogens and a selection of structurally and chemically interesting AR-targeting compounds, from a pharmacochemical perspective. Focus has been placed on the applied design approaches, structural evolution and structure-activity relationships of the most prominent compound classes. Passing from the traditional steroidal AR antagonists to the modern AR-targeting proteolysis targeting chimeras (PROTACs), we intend to provide a comprehensive overview on AR-targeting molecules for PCa treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ioannis Avgeris
- Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry, Department of Pharmacy, University of Patras, Patras GR-26500, Greece
| | - Dimanthi Pliatsika
- Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry, Department of Pharmacy, University of Patras, Patras GR-26500, Greece
| | - Sotiris S Nikolaropoulos
- Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry, Department of Pharmacy, University of Patras, Patras GR-26500, Greece
| | - Manolis A Fousteris
- Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry, Department of Pharmacy, University of Patras, Patras GR-26500, Greece.
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9
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Abstract
The androgen receptor (AR) plays a key role in the maintenance of muscle and bone and the support of male sexual-related functions, as well as in the progression of prostate cancer. Accordingly, AR-targeted therapies have been developed for the treatment of related human diseases and conditions. AR agonists are an important class of drugs in the treatment of bone loss and muscle atrophy. AR antagonists have also been developed for the treatment of prostate cancer, including metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC). Additionally, selective AR degraders (SARDs) have been reported. More recently, heterobifunctional degrader molecules of AR have been developed, and four such compounds are now in clinical development for the treatment of human prostate cancer. This review attempts to summarize the different types of compounds designed to target AR and the current frontiers of research on this important therapeutic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiguo Xiang
- Departments of Internal Medicine, Pharmacology and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Shaomeng Wang
- Departments of Internal Medicine, Pharmacology and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
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10
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Zhang C, Wu J, Chen Q, Tan H, Huang F, Guo J, Zhang X, Yu H, Shi W. Allosteric binding on nuclear receptors: Insights on screening of non-competitive endocrine-disrupting chemicals. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2022; 159:107009. [PMID: 34883459 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2021.107009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2021] [Revised: 11/23/2021] [Accepted: 11/25/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) can compete with endogenous hormones and bind to the orthosteric site of nuclear receptors (NRs), affecting normal endocrine system function and causing severe symptoms. Recently, a series of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) have been discovered to bind to the allosteric sites of NRs and induce similar effects. However, it remains unclear how diverse EDCs work in this new way. Therefore, we have systematically summarized the allosteric sites and underlying mechanisms based on existing studies, mainly regarding drugs belonging to the PPCP class. Advanced methods, classified as structural biology, biochemistry and computational simulation, together with their advantages and hurdles for allosteric site recognition and mechanism insight have also been described. Furthermore, we have highlighted two available strategies for virtual screening of numerous EDCs, relying on the structural features of allosteric sites and lead compounds, respectively. We aim to provide reliable theoretical and technical support for a broader view of various allosteric interactions between EDCs and NRs, and to drive high-throughput and accurate screening of potential EDCs with non-competitive effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chi Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, Jiangsu, China; Jiangsu Province Ecology and Environment Protection Key Laboratory of Chemical Safety and Health Risk, Nanjing 210023, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jinqiu Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, Jiangsu, China; Jiangsu Province Ecology and Environment Protection Key Laboratory of Chemical Safety and Health Risk, Nanjing 210023, Jiangsu, China
| | - Qinchang Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, Jiangsu, China; Jiangsu Province Ecology and Environment Protection Key Laboratory of Chemical Safety and Health Risk, Nanjing 210023, Jiangsu, China
| | - Haoyue Tan
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, Jiangsu, China; Jiangsu Province Ecology and Environment Protection Key Laboratory of Chemical Safety and Health Risk, Nanjing 210023, Jiangsu, China
| | - Fuyan Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, Jiangsu, China; Jiangsu Province Ecology and Environment Protection Key Laboratory of Chemical Safety and Health Risk, Nanjing 210023, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jing Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, Jiangsu, China; Jiangsu Province Ecology and Environment Protection Key Laboratory of Chemical Safety and Health Risk, Nanjing 210023, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xiaowei Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, Jiangsu, China; Jiangsu Province Ecology and Environment Protection Key Laboratory of Chemical Safety and Health Risk, Nanjing 210023, Jiangsu, China
| | - Hongxia Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, Jiangsu, China; Jiangsu Province Ecology and Environment Protection Key Laboratory of Chemical Safety and Health Risk, Nanjing 210023, Jiangsu, China
| | - Wei Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, Jiangsu, China; Jiangsu Province Ecology and Environment Protection Key Laboratory of Chemical Safety and Health Risk, Nanjing 210023, Jiangsu, China.
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11
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Kumar S, Patil MT, Salunke DB. Indole based prostate cancer agents. PHYSICAL SCIENCES REVIEWS 2022. [DOI: 10.1515/psr-2021-0131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Cancer weakens the immune system which fails to fight against the rapidly growing cells. Among the various types of cancers, prostate cancer (PCa) is causing greater number of deaths in men after lung cancer, demanding advancement to prevent, detect and treat PCa. Several small molecule heterocycles and few peptides are being used as oncological drugs targeting PCa. Heterocycles are playing crucial role in the development of novel cancer chemotherapeutics as well as immunotherapeutics. Indole skeleton, being a privileged structure has been extensively used for the discovery of novel anticancer agents and the application of indole derivatives against breast cancer is well documented. The present article highlights the usefulness of indole linked heterocyclic compounds as well as the fused indole derivatives against prostate cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sunil Kumar
- Department of Chemistry and Centre for Advanced Studies in Chemistry , Panjab University , Chandigarh , 160014 , India
- Department of Chemistry , J. C. Bose University of Science and Technology, YMCA , Faridabad 121006 , Haryana , India
| | - Madhuri T. Patil
- Mehr Chand Mahajan DAV College for Women , Sector 36A , Chandigarh 160036 , India
| | - Deepak B. Salunke
- Department of Chemistry and Centre for Advanced Studies in Chemistry , Panjab University , Chandigarh , 160014 , India
- National Interdisciplinary Centre of Vaccine, Immunotherapeutics and Antimicrobials , Panjab University , Chandigarh 160014 , India
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12
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Pang JP, Shen C, Zhou WF, Wang YX, Shan LH, Chai X, Shao Y, Hu XP, Zhu F, Zhu DY, Xiao L, Xu L, Xu XH, Li D, Hou TJ. Discovery of novel antagonists targeting the DNA binding domain of androgen receptor by integrated docking-based virtual screening and bioassays. Acta Pharmacol Sin 2022; 43:229-239. [PMID: 33767381 PMCID: PMC8724294 DOI: 10.1038/s41401-021-00632-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2020] [Accepted: 02/24/2021] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Androgen receptor (AR), a ligand-activated transcription factor, is a master regulator in the development and progress of prostate cancer (PCa). A major challenge for the clinically used AR antagonists is the rapid emergence of resistance induced by the mutations at AR ligand binding domain (LBD), and therefore the discovery of novel anti-AR therapeutics that can combat mutation-induced resistance is quite demanding. Therein, blocking the interaction between AR and DNA represents an innovative strategy. However, the hits confirmed targeting on it so far are all structurally based on a sole chemical scaffold. In this study, an integrated docking-based virtual screening (VS) strategy based on the crystal structure of the DNA binding domain (DBD) of AR was conducted to search for novel AR antagonists with new scaffolds and 2-(2-butyl-1,3-dioxoisoindoline-5-carboxamido)-4,5-dimethoxybenzoicacid (Cpd39) was identified as a potential hit, which was competent to block the binding of AR DBD to DNA and showed decent potency against AR transcriptional activity. Furthermore, Cpd39 was safe and capable of effectively inhibiting the proliferation of PCa cell lines (i.e., LNCaP, PC3, DU145, and 22RV1) and reducing the expression of the genes regulated by not only the full-length AR but also the splice variant AR-V7. The novel AR DBD-ARE blocker Cpd39 could serve as a starting point for the development of new therapeutics for castration-resistant PCa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin-Ping Pang
- Hangzhou Institute of Innovative Medicine, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Chao Shen
- Hangzhou Institute of Innovative Medicine, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Wen-Fang Zhou
- Hangzhou Institute of Innovative Medicine, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Yun-Xia Wang
- Hangzhou Institute of Innovative Medicine, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Lu-Hu Shan
- Institute of Cancer Research and Basic Medical Sciences of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Cancer Hospital of University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Zhejiang Cancer Hospital, Hangzhou, 310022, China
| | - Xin Chai
- Hangzhou Institute of Innovative Medicine, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Ying Shao
- Hangzhou Institute of Innovative Medicine, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Xue-Ping Hu
- Hangzhou Institute of Innovative Medicine, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Feng Zhu
- Hangzhou Institute of Innovative Medicine, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Dan-Yan Zhu
- Hangzhou Institute of Innovative Medicine, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Li Xiao
- School of Life Science, Huzhou University, Huzhou, 313000, China
| | - Lei Xu
- Institute of Bioinformatics and Medical Engineering, School of Electrical and Information Engineering, Jiangsu University of Technology, Changzhou, 213001, China
| | - Xiao-Hong Xu
- Institute of Cancer Research and Basic Medical Sciences of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Cancer Hospital of University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Zhejiang Cancer Hospital, Hangzhou, 310022, China
| | - Dan Li
- Hangzhou Institute of Innovative Medicine, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China.
| | - Ting-Jun Hou
- Hangzhou Institute of Innovative Medicine, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China.
- State Key Lab of CAD & CG, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China.
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13
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Han X, Zhao L, Xiang W, Qin C, Miao B, McEachern D, Wang Y, Metwally H, Wang L, Matvekas A, Wen B, Sun D, Wang S. Strategies toward Discovery of Potent and Orally Bioavailable Proteolysis Targeting Chimera Degraders of Androgen Receptor for the Treatment of Prostate Cancer. J Med Chem 2021; 64:12831-12854. [PMID: 34431670 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.1c00882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Proteolysis targeting chimera (PROTAC) small-molecule degraders have emerged as a promising new type of therapeutic agents, but the design of PROTAC degraders with excellent oral pharmacokinetics is a major challenge. In this study, we present our strategies toward the discovery of highly potent PROTAC degraders of androgen receptor (AR) with excellent oral pharmacokinetics. Employing thalidomide to recruit cereblon/cullin 4A E3 ligase and through the rigidification of the linker, we discovered highly potent AR degraders with good oral pharmacokinetic properties in mice with ARD-2128 being the best compound. ARD-2128 achieves 67% oral bioavailability in mice, effectively reduces AR protein and suppresses AR-regulated genes in tumor tissues with oral administration, leading to the effective inhibition of tumor growth in mice without signs of toxicity. This study supports the development of an orally active PROTAC AR degrader for the treatment of prostate cancer and provides insights and guidance into the design of orally active PROTAC degraders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Han
- The Rogel Cancer Center, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States.,Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Lijie Zhao
- The Rogel Cancer Center, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States.,Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Weiguo Xiang
- The Rogel Cancer Center, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States.,Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Chong Qin
- The Rogel Cancer Center, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States.,Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Bukeyan Miao
- The Rogel Cancer Center, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States.,Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Donna McEachern
- The Rogel Cancer Center, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States.,Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Yu Wang
- The Rogel Cancer Center, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States.,Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Hoda Metwally
- The Rogel Cancer Center, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States.,Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Lu Wang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Aleksas Matvekas
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Bo Wen
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Duxin Sun
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Shaomeng Wang
- The Rogel Cancer Center, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States.,Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States.,Department of Pharmacology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States.,Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
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14
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Liang JJ, Xie H, Yang RH, Wang N, Zheng ZJ, Zhou C, Wang YL, Wang ZJ, Liu HM, Shan LH, Ke Y. Designed, synthesized and biological evaluation of proteolysis targeting chimeras (PROTACs) as AR degraders for prostate cancer treatment. Bioorg Med Chem 2021; 45:116331. [PMID: 34364224 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2021.116331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2021] [Revised: 07/20/2021] [Accepted: 07/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
As a continuation of our research on developing potent and potentially safe androgen receptor (AR) degrader, a series of novel proteolysis targeting chimeras (PROTACs) containing the phthalimide degrons with different linker were designed, synthesized and evaluated for their AR degradation activity against LNCaP (AR+) cell line. Most of the synthesized compounds displayed moderate to satisfactory AR binding affinity and might lead to antagonist activity against AR. Among them, compound A16 exhibited the best AR binding affinity (85%) and degradation activity against AR. Due to the strong fluorescence properties of pomalidomide derivatives, B10 was found to be effectively internalized and visualized in LNCaP (AR + ) cells than PC-3 (AR-) cells. Moreover, the molecular docking of A16 with AR and the active site of DDB1-CRBN E3 ubiquitin ligase complex provides guidance to design new PROTAC degrons targeting AR for prostate cancer therapy. These results represent a step toward the development of novel and improved AR PROTACs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian-Jia Liang
- School of Pharmacy, Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei 430072, PR China
| | - Hang Xie
- School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, PR China
| | - Rui-Hua Yang
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan 450001, PR China; Collaborative Innovation Center of New Drug Research and Safety Evaluation, Henan Province, Zhengzhou 450001, PR China; Key Laboratory of Advanced Drug Preparation Technologies, Ministry of Education of China, PR China
| | - Ni Wang
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan 450001, PR China; Collaborative Innovation Center of New Drug Research and Safety Evaluation, Henan Province, Zhengzhou 450001, PR China; Key Laboratory of Advanced Drug Preparation Technologies, Ministry of Education of China, PR China
| | - Zi-Jun Zheng
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan 450001, PR China; Collaborative Innovation Center of New Drug Research and Safety Evaluation, Henan Province, Zhengzhou 450001, PR China; Key Laboratory of Advanced Drug Preparation Technologies, Ministry of Education of China, PR China
| | - Chen Zhou
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan 450001, PR China; Collaborative Innovation Center of New Drug Research and Safety Evaluation, Henan Province, Zhengzhou 450001, PR China; Key Laboratory of Advanced Drug Preparation Technologies, Ministry of Education of China, PR China
| | - Ya-Lei Wang
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan 450001, PR China; Collaborative Innovation Center of New Drug Research and Safety Evaluation, Henan Province, Zhengzhou 450001, PR China; Key Laboratory of Advanced Drug Preparation Technologies, Ministry of Education of China, PR China
| | - Zhi-Jia Wang
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan 450001, PR China; Collaborative Innovation Center of New Drug Research and Safety Evaluation, Henan Province, Zhengzhou 450001, PR China; Key Laboratory of Advanced Drug Preparation Technologies, Ministry of Education of China, PR China
| | - Hong-Min Liu
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan 450001, PR China; Collaborative Innovation Center of New Drug Research and Safety Evaluation, Henan Province, Zhengzhou 450001, PR China; Key Laboratory of Advanced Drug Preparation Technologies, Ministry of Education of China, PR China.
| | - Li-Hong Shan
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan 450001, PR China; Collaborative Innovation Center of New Drug Research and Safety Evaluation, Henan Province, Zhengzhou 450001, PR China; Key Laboratory of Advanced Drug Preparation Technologies, Ministry of Education of China, PR China.
| | - Yu Ke
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan 450001, PR China; Collaborative Innovation Center of New Drug Research and Safety Evaluation, Henan Province, Zhengzhou 450001, PR China; Key Laboratory of Advanced Drug Preparation Technologies, Ministry of Education of China, PR China.
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15
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Song F, Bian Y, Liu J, Li Z, Zhao L, Fang J, Lai Y, Zhou M. Indole Alkaloids, Synthetic Dimers and Hybrids with Potential In Vivo Anticancer Activity. Curr Top Med Chem 2021; 21:377-403. [PMID: 32901583 DOI: 10.2174/1568026620666200908162311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2020] [Revised: 08/02/2020] [Accepted: 08/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Indole, a heterocyclic organic compound, is one of the most promising heterocycles found in natural and synthetic sources since its derivatives possess fascinating structural diversity and various therapeutic properties. Indole alkaloids, synthetic dimers and hybrids could act on diverse targets in cancer cells, and consequently, possess potential antiproliferative effects on various cancers both in vitro and in vivo. Vinblastine, midostaurin, and anlotinib as the representative of indole alkaloids, synthetic dimers and hybrids respectively, have already been clinically applied to treat many types of cancers, demonstrating indole alkaloids, synthetic dimers and hybrids are useful scaffolds for the development of novel anticancer agents. Covering articles published between 2010 and 2020, this review emphasizes the recent development of indole alkaloids, synthetic dimers and hybrids with potential in vivo therapeutic application for cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng Song
- Shandong Key Laboratory of Biophysics, Institute of Biophysics, Dezhou University, Dezhou 253023, Shandong, China
| | - Yunqiang Bian
- Shandong Key Laboratory of Biophysics, Institute of Biophysics, Dezhou University, Dezhou 253023, Shandong, China
| | - Jing Liu
- Shandong Key Laboratory of Biophysics, Institute of Biophysics, Dezhou University, Dezhou 253023, Shandong, China
| | - Zhenghua Li
- Shandong Key Laboratory of Biophysics, Institute of Biophysics, Dezhou University, Dezhou 253023, Shandong, China
| | - Li Zhao
- Shandong Key Laboratory of Biophysics, Institute of Biophysics, Dezhou University, Dezhou 253023, Shandong, China
| | - Junman Fang
- School of Life Sciences, Dezhou University, Dezhou 253023, Shandong, China
| | - Yonghong Lai
- School of Life Sciences, Dezhou University, Dezhou 253023, Shandong, China
| | - Meng Zhou
- School of Life Sciences, Dezhou University, Dezhou 253023, Shandong, China
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16
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Ban F, Leblanc E, Cavga AD, Huang CCF, Flory MR, Zhang F, Chang MEK, Morin H, Lallous N, Singh K, Gleave ME, Mohammed H, Rennie PS, Lack NA, Cherkasov A. Development of an Androgen Receptor Inhibitor Targeting the N-Terminal Domain of Androgen Receptor for Treatment of Castration Resistant Prostate Cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:3488. [PMID: 34298700 PMCID: PMC8304761 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13143488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2021] [Revised: 07/05/2021] [Accepted: 07/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Prostate cancer patients undergoing androgen deprivation therapy almost invariably develop castration-resistant prostate cancer. Resistance can occur when mutations in the androgen receptor (AR) render anti-androgen drugs ineffective or through the expression of constitutively active splice variants lacking the androgen binding domain entirely (e.g., ARV7). In this study, we are reporting the discovery of a novel AR-NTD covalent inhibitor 1-chloro-3-[(5-([(2S)-3-chloro-2-hydroxypropyl]amino)naphthalen-1-yl)amino]propan-2-ol (VPC-220010) targeting the AR-N-terminal Domain (AR-NTD). VPC-220010 inhibits AR-mediated transcription of full length and truncated variant ARV7, downregulates AR response genes, and selectively reduces the growth of both full-length AR- and truncated AR-dependent prostate cancer cell lines. We show that VPC-220010 disrupts interactions between AR and known coactivators and coregulatory proteins, such as CHD4, FOXA1, ZMIZ1, and several SWI/SNF complex proteins. Taken together, our data suggest that VPC-220010 is a promising small molecule that can be further optimized into effective AR-NTD inhibitor for the treatment of CRPC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fuqiang Ban
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC V6H 3Z6, Canada; (F.B.); (E.L.); (C.-C.F.H.); (F.Z.); (H.M.); (N.L.); (K.S.); (M.E.G.); (P.S.R.); (N.A.L.)
| | - Eric Leblanc
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC V6H 3Z6, Canada; (F.B.); (E.L.); (C.-C.F.H.); (F.Z.); (H.M.); (N.L.); (K.S.); (M.E.G.); (P.S.R.); (N.A.L.)
| | - Ayse Derya Cavga
- School of Medicine, Koç University, Rumelifeneri Yolu, 34450 Istanbul, Turkey;
| | - Chia-Chi Flora Huang
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC V6H 3Z6, Canada; (F.B.); (E.L.); (C.-C.F.H.); (F.Z.); (H.M.); (N.L.); (K.S.); (M.E.G.); (P.S.R.); (N.A.L.)
| | - Mark R. Flory
- Knight Cancer Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, 3181 S.W. Sam Jackson Park Rd., Portland, OR 97239-3098, USA; (M.R.F.); (M.E.K.C.); (H.M.)
| | - Fan Zhang
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC V6H 3Z6, Canada; (F.B.); (E.L.); (C.-C.F.H.); (F.Z.); (H.M.); (N.L.); (K.S.); (M.E.G.); (P.S.R.); (N.A.L.)
| | - Matthew E. K. Chang
- Knight Cancer Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, 3181 S.W. Sam Jackson Park Rd., Portland, OR 97239-3098, USA; (M.R.F.); (M.E.K.C.); (H.M.)
| | - Hélène Morin
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC V6H 3Z6, Canada; (F.B.); (E.L.); (C.-C.F.H.); (F.Z.); (H.M.); (N.L.); (K.S.); (M.E.G.); (P.S.R.); (N.A.L.)
| | - Nada Lallous
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC V6H 3Z6, Canada; (F.B.); (E.L.); (C.-C.F.H.); (F.Z.); (H.M.); (N.L.); (K.S.); (M.E.G.); (P.S.R.); (N.A.L.)
| | - Kriti Singh
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC V6H 3Z6, Canada; (F.B.); (E.L.); (C.-C.F.H.); (F.Z.); (H.M.); (N.L.); (K.S.); (M.E.G.); (P.S.R.); (N.A.L.)
| | - Martin E. Gleave
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC V6H 3Z6, Canada; (F.B.); (E.L.); (C.-C.F.H.); (F.Z.); (H.M.); (N.L.); (K.S.); (M.E.G.); (P.S.R.); (N.A.L.)
| | - Hisham Mohammed
- Knight Cancer Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, 3181 S.W. Sam Jackson Park Rd., Portland, OR 97239-3098, USA; (M.R.F.); (M.E.K.C.); (H.M.)
| | - Paul S. Rennie
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC V6H 3Z6, Canada; (F.B.); (E.L.); (C.-C.F.H.); (F.Z.); (H.M.); (N.L.); (K.S.); (M.E.G.); (P.S.R.); (N.A.L.)
| | - Nathan A. Lack
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC V6H 3Z6, Canada; (F.B.); (E.L.); (C.-C.F.H.); (F.Z.); (H.M.); (N.L.); (K.S.); (M.E.G.); (P.S.R.); (N.A.L.)
- School of Medicine, Koç University, Rumelifeneri Yolu, 34450 Istanbul, Turkey;
- Koç University Research Centre for Translational Medicine (KUTTAM), Koç University, Rumelifeneri Yolu, 34450 Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Artem Cherkasov
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC V6H 3Z6, Canada; (F.B.); (E.L.); (C.-C.F.H.); (F.Z.); (H.M.); (N.L.); (K.S.); (M.E.G.); (P.S.R.); (N.A.L.)
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17
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Filho EV, Pina JWS, Antoniazi MK, Loureiro LB, Ribeiro MA, Pinheiro CB, Guimarães CJ, de Oliveira FCE, Pessoa C, Taranto AG, Greco SJ. Synthesis, docking, machine learning and antiproliferative activity of the 6-ferrocene/heterocycle-2-aminopyrimidine and 5-ferrocene-1H-Pyrazole derivatives obtained by microwave-assisted Atwal reaction as potential anticancer agents. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2021; 48:128240. [PMID: 34217828 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2021.128240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2021] [Revised: 06/02/2021] [Accepted: 06/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
A simple and fast methodology under microwave irradiation for the synthesis of 2-aminopyrimidine and pyrazole derivatives using Atwal reaction is reported. After the optimization of the reaction conditions, eight 2-aminolpyrimidines containing ferrocene and heterocycles and three ferrocene pyrazoles were synthesized from the respective chalcones in good yields. Eight compounds had their structure determined by X-ray diffraction. The molecular hybrid 6a-h and 9a-c were tested on four cancer cell lines - HCT116, PC3, HL60 and SNB19 - where four pyrimidine 6a, 6f-h and one pyrazole 9c derivatives show promising antiproliferative activity. In addition, docking simulation and machine learning methods were carried out to explain the biological activity achieved by the synthetized compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eclair Venturini Filho
- Chemistry Department, Federal University of Espírito Santo, Vitória, Espírito Santo CEP.:29075-910, Brazil
| | - Jorge W S Pina
- Chemistry Department, Federal University of Espírito Santo, Vitória, Espírito Santo CEP.:29075-910, Brazil
| | - Mariana K Antoniazi
- Chemistry Department, Federal University of Espírito Santo, Vitória, Espírito Santo CEP.:29075-910, Brazil
| | - Laiza B Loureiro
- Chemistry Department, Federal University of Espírito Santo, Vitória, Espírito Santo CEP.:29075-910, Brazil
| | - Marcos A Ribeiro
- Chemistry Department, Federal University of Espírito Santo, Vitória, Espírito Santo CEP.:29075-910, Brazil
| | - Carlos B Pinheiro
- Physical Department, Minas Gerais Federal University, Av. Antônio Carlos 6627, Pampulha, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais CEP.: 30161-970 Brazil
| | - Celina J Guimarães
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Federal University of Ceará., Fortaleza, Ceará CEP 60430-275, Brazil; Pharmacy Sector, Foundation of Oncology Control of the State of Amazonas, Manaus, Amazonas, CEP 69040-010, Brazil
| | - Fátima C E de Oliveira
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Federal University of Ceará., Fortaleza, Ceará CEP 60430-275, Brazil
| | - Claudia Pessoa
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Federal University of Ceará., Fortaleza, Ceará CEP 60430-275, Brazil
| | - Alex G Taranto
- Laboratory of Drug Design and Bioinformatics, Federal University of São João del-Rei, São João del-Rei, Minas Gerais CEP: 36307-352, Brazil
| | - Sandro J Greco
- Chemistry Department, Federal University of Espírito Santo, Vitória, Espírito Santo CEP.:29075-910, Brazil.
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18
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Kong X, Xing E, Zhuang T, Li PK, Cheng X. Mechanistic Insights into the Allosteric Inhibition of Androgen Receptors by Binding Function 3 Antagonists from an Integrated Molecular Modeling Study. J Chem Inf Model 2021; 61:3477-3494. [PMID: 34165949 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jcim.1c00124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
An androgen receptor (AR) is an intensively studied treatment target for castration-resistant prostate cancer that is irresponsive to conventional antiandrogen therapeutics. Binding function 3 (BF3) inhibitors with alternative modes of action have emerged as a promising approach to overcoming antiandrogen resistance. However, how these BF3 inhibitors modulate AR function remains elusive, hindering the development of BF3-targeting agents. Here, we performed an integrated computational study to interrogate the binding mechanism of several known BF3 inhibitors with ARs. Our results show that the inhibitory effect of the BF3 antagonists arises from their allosteric modulation of the activation function (AF2) site, which alters the dynamic coupling between the BF3 and AF2 sites as well as the AF2-coactivator (SRC2-3) interaction. Moreover, the per-residue binding energy analyses reveal the "anchor" role of the linker connecting the phenyl ring and benzimidazole/indole in these BF3 inhibitors. Furthermore, the allosteric driver-interacting residues are found to include both "positive", e.g., Phe673 and Asn833, and "negative" ones, e.g., Phe826, and the differential interactions with these residues provide an explanation why stronger binding does not necessarily result in higher inhibitory activities. Finally, our allosteric communication pathway analyses delineate how the allosteric signals triggered by BF3 binding are propagated to the AF2 pocket through multiple short- and/or long-ranged transmission pathways. Collectively, our combined computational study provides a comprehensive structural mechanism underlying how the selected set of BF3 inhibitors modulate AR function, which will help guide future development of BF3 antagonists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaotian Kong
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
| | - Enming Xing
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
| | - Tony Zhuang
- J. Willis Hurst Internal Medicine Program, Department of Medicine, Emory University, 100 Woodruff Circle, Atlanta, Georgia 30329, United States
| | - Pui-Kai Li
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
| | - Xiaolin Cheng
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
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19
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Atia AA, Kimura M. Pd-porphyrin complex-catalyzed allylation of indole with allylic alcohols through C3–C2 coupling. Tetrahedron 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2021.132213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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20
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Beckers I, Krasniqi B, Kumar P, Escudero D, De Vos D. Ligand-Controlled Selectivity in the Pd-Catalyzed C–H/C–H Cross-Coupling of Indoles with Molecular Oxygen. ACS Catal 2021. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.0c04893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Igor Beckers
- Department of Microbial and Molecular Systems, Centre for Membrane Separations, Adsorption, Catalysis and Spectroscopy for Sustainable Solutions (cMACS), KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200F, Leuven 3001, Belgium
| | - Besir Krasniqi
- Department of Microbial and Molecular Systems, Centre for Membrane Separations, Adsorption, Catalysis and Spectroscopy for Sustainable Solutions (cMACS), KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200F, Leuven 3001, Belgium
| | - Prashant Kumar
- Department of Chemistry, Quantum Chemistry and Physical Chemistry Division, KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200F, Leuven 3001, Belgium
| | - Daniel Escudero
- Department of Chemistry, Quantum Chemistry and Physical Chemistry Division, KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200F, Leuven 3001, Belgium
| | - Dirk De Vos
- Department of Microbial and Molecular Systems, Centre for Membrane Separations, Adsorption, Catalysis and Spectroscopy for Sustainable Solutions (cMACS), KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200F, Leuven 3001, Belgium
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21
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Eighty Years of Targeting Androgen Receptor Activity in Prostate Cancer: The Fight Goes on. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13030509. [PMID: 33572755 PMCID: PMC7865914 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13030509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2020] [Revised: 01/25/2021] [Accepted: 01/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Prostate cancer is the second most common cancer in men world-wide, with nearly 1.3 million new cases each year, and over the next twenty years the incidence and death rate are predicted to nearly double. For decades, this lethal disease has been more or less successfully treated using hormonal therapy, which has the ultimate aim of inhibiting androgen signalling. However, prostate tumours can evade such hormonal therapies in a number of different ways and therapy resistant disease, so-called castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) is the major clinical problem. Somewhat counterintuitively, the androgen receptor remains a key therapy target in CRPC. Here, we explain why this is the case and summarise both new hormone therapy strategies and the recent advances in knowledge of androgen receptor structure and function that underpin them. Abstract Prostate cancer (PCa) is the most common cancer in men in the West, other than skin cancer, accounting for over a quarter of cancer diagnoses in US men. In a seminal paper from 1941, Huggins and Hodges demonstrated that prostate tumours and metastatic disease were sensitive to the presence or absence of androgenic hormones. The first hormonal therapy for PCa was thus castration. In the subsequent eighty years, targeting the androgen signalling axis, where possible using drugs rather than surgery, has been a mainstay in the treatment of advanced and metastatic disease. Androgens signal via the androgen receptor, a ligand-activated transcription factor, which is the direct target of many such drugs. In this review we discuss the role of the androgen receptor in PCa and how the combination of structural information and functional screenings is continuing to be used for the discovery of new drug to switch off the receptor or modify its function in cancer cells.
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22
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Bafna D, Ban F, Rennie PS, Singh K, Cherkasov A. Computer-Aided Ligand Discovery for Estrogen Receptor Alpha. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E4193. [PMID: 32545494 PMCID: PMC7352601 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21124193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2020] [Revised: 05/30/2020] [Accepted: 06/09/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Breast cancer (BCa) is one of the most predominantly diagnosed cancers in women. Notably, 70% of BCa diagnoses are Estrogen Receptor α positive (ERα+) making it a critical therapeutic target. With that, the two subtypes of ER, ERα and ERβ, have contrasting effects on BCa cells. While ERα promotes cancerous activities, ERβ isoform exhibits inhibitory effects on the same. ER-directed small molecule drug discovery for BCa has provided the FDA approved drugs tamoxifen, toremifene, raloxifene and fulvestrant that all bind to the estrogen binding site of the receptor. These ER-directed inhibitors are non-selective in nature and may eventually induce resistance in BCa cells as well as increase the risk of endometrial cancer development. Thus, there is an urgent need to develop novel drugs with alternative ERα targeting mechanisms that can overcome the limitations of conventional anti-ERα therapies. Several functional sites on ERα, such as Activation Function-2 (AF2), DNA binding domain (DBD), and F-domain, have been recently considered as potential targets in the context of drug research and discovery. In this review, we summarize methods of computer-aided drug design (CADD) that have been employed to analyze and explore potential targetable sites on ERα, discuss recent advancement of ERα inhibitor development, and highlight the potential opportunities and challenges of future ERα-directed drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Artem Cherkasov
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC V6H 3Z6, Canada; (D.B.); (F.B.); (P.S.R.); (K.S.)
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23
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Allosteric Binding Sites On Nuclear Receptors: Focus On Drug Efficacy and Selectivity. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21020534. [PMID: 31947677 PMCID: PMC7014104 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21020534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2019] [Revised: 12/29/2019] [Accepted: 01/10/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Nuclear receptors (NRs) are highly relevant drug targets in major indications such as oncologic, metabolic, reproductive, and immunologic diseases. However, currently, marketed drugs designed towards the orthosteric binding site of NRs often suffer from resistance mechanisms and poor selectivity. The identification of two superficial allosteric sites, activation function-2 (AF-2) and binding function-3 (BF-3), as novel drug targets sparked the development of inhibitors, while selectivity concerns due to a high conservation degree remained. To determine important pharmacophores and hydration sites among AF-2 and BF-3 of eight hormonal NRs, we systematically analyzed over 10 μ s of molecular dynamics simulations including simulations in explicit water and solvent mixtures. In addition, a library of over 300 allosteric inhibitors was evaluated by molecular docking. Based on our results, we suggest the BF-3 site to offer a higher potential for drug selectivity as opposed to the AF-2 site that is more conserved among the selected receptors. Detected similarities among the AF-2 sites of various NRs urge for a broader selectivity assessment in future studies. In combination with the Supplementary Material, this work provides a foundation to improve both selectivity and potency of allosteric inhibitors in a rational manner and increase the therapeutic applicability of this promising compound class.
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24
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Ferroni C, Varchi G. Non-Steroidal Androgen Receptor Antagonists and Prostate Cancer: A Survey on Chemical Structures Binding this Fast-Mutating Target. Curr Med Chem 2019; 26:6053-6073. [PMID: 30209993 DOI: 10.2174/0929867325666180913095239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2018] [Revised: 06/04/2018] [Accepted: 06/04/2018] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
The Androgen Receptor (AR) pathway plays a major role in both the pathogenesis and progression of prostate cancer. In particular, AR is chiefly involved in the development of Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer (CRPC) as well as in the resistance to the secondgeneration AR antagonist enzalutamide, and to the selective inhibitor of cytochrome P450 17A1 (CYP17A1) abiraterone. Several small molecules acting as AR antagonists have been designed and developed so far, also as a result of the ability of cells expressing this molecular target to rapidly develop resistance and turn pure receptor antagonists into ineffective or event detrimental molecules. This review covers a survey of most promising classes of non-steroidal androgen receptor antagonists, also providing insights into their mechanism of action and efficacy in treating prostate cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Ferroni
- Institute of Organic Synthesis and Photoreactivity - ISOF, Italian National Research Council, Bologna, Italy
| | - Greta Varchi
- Institute of Organic Synthesis and Photoreactivity - ISOF, Italian National Research Council, Bologna, Italy
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25
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Snow O, Lallous N, Singh K, Lack N, Rennie P, Cherkasov A. Androgen receptor plasticity and its implications for prostate cancer therapy. Cancer Treat Rev 2019; 81:101871. [PMID: 31698174 DOI: 10.1016/j.ctrv.2019.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2018] [Revised: 04/30/2019] [Accepted: 05/02/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Acquired resistance to a drug treatment is a common problem across many cancers including prostate cancer (PCa) - one of the major factors for male mortality. The androgen receptor (AR) continues to be the main therapeutic PCa target and despite the success of modern targeted therapies such as enzalutamide, resistance to these drugs eventually develops. The AR has found many ways to adapt to treatments including overexpression and production of functional, constitutively active splice variants. However, of particular importance are point mutations in the ligand binding domain of the protein that convert anti-androgens into potent AR agonists. This mechanism appears to be especially prevalent with the AR in spite of some distant similarities to other hormone nuclear receptors. Despite the AR being one of the most studied and attended targets in cancer, those gain-of-function mutations in the receptor remain a significant challenge for the development of PCa therapies. This drives the need to fully characterize such mutations and to consistently screen PCa patients for their occurrence to prevent adverse reactions to anti-androgen drugs. Novel treatments should also be developed to overcome this resistance mechanism and more attention should be given to the possibility of similar occurrences in other cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Snow
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak St, Vancouver V6H 3Z6, BC, Canada; School of Computing Science, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Drive, Burnaby V5A 1S6, BC, Canada
| | - Nada Lallous
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak St, Vancouver V6H 3Z6, BC, Canada
| | - Kriti Singh
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak St, Vancouver V6H 3Z6, BC, Canada
| | - Nathan Lack
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak St, Vancouver V6H 3Z6, BC, Canada
| | - Paul Rennie
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak St, Vancouver V6H 3Z6, BC, Canada
| | - Artem Cherkasov
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak St, Vancouver V6H 3Z6, BC, Canada.
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26
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Lee II, Kuznik NC, Rottenberg JT, Brown M, Cato ACB. BAG1L: a promising therapeutic target for androgen receptor-dependent prostate cancer. J Mol Endocrinol 2019; 62:R289-R299. [PMID: 30913537 DOI: 10.1530/jme-19-0034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2019] [Accepted: 03/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Androgens are important determinants of normal and malignant prostate growth. They function by binding to the C-terminal ligand-binding domain (LBD) of the androgen receptor (AR). All clinically approved AR-targeting antiandrogens for prostate cancer therapy function by competing with endogenous androgens. Despite initial robust responses to androgen deprivation therapy, nearly all patients with advanced prostate cancer relapse with lethal castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). Progression to CRPC is associated with ongoing AR signaling, which in part, is due to the expression of constitutively active AR splice variants that contain the N-terminus of the receptor but lack the C-terminus. Currently, there are no approved therapies specifically targeting the AR N-terminus. Current pharmacologic targeting strategies for inhibiting the AR N-terminal region have proven difficult, due to its intrinsically unstructured nature and lack of enzymatic activity. An alternative approach is to target key molecules such as the cochaperone BAG1L that bind to and enhance the activity of the AR AF1. Here, we review recent literature that suggest Bag-1L is a promising target for AR-positive prostate cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene I Lee
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Center for Functional Cancer Epigenetics, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Nane C Kuznik
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute of Toxicology and Genetics, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Jaice T Rottenberg
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Center for Functional Cancer Epigenetics, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Myles Brown
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Center for Functional Cancer Epigenetics, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Andrew C B Cato
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute of Toxicology and Genetics, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
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27
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Meijer FA, Leijten-van de Gevel IA, de Vries RMJM, Brunsveld L. Allosteric small molecule modulators of nuclear receptors. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2019; 485:20-34. [PMID: 30703487 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2019.01.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2018] [Revised: 01/23/2019] [Accepted: 01/25/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Nuclear Receptors (NRs) are multi-domain proteins, whose natural regulation occurs via ligands for a classical, orthosteric, binding pocket and via intra- and inter-domain allosteric mechanisms. Allosteric modulation of NRs via synthetic small molecules has recently emerged as an interesting entry to address the need for small molecules targeting NRs in pathology, via novel modes of action and with beneficial profiles. In this review the general concept of allosteric modulation in drug discovery is first discussed, serving as a background and inspiration for NRs. Subsequently, the review focuses on examples of small molecules that allosterically modulate NRs, with a strong focus on structural information and the ligand binding domain. Recently discovered nanomolar potent allosteric site NR modulators are catapulting allosteric targeting of NRs to the center of attention. The obtained insights serve as a basis for recommendations for the next steps to take in allosteric small molecular targeting of NRs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Femke A Meijer
- Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Department of Biomedical Engineering and Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Technische Universiteit Eindhoven, Den Dolech 2, 5612AZ, Eindhoven, the Netherlands
| | - Iris A Leijten-van de Gevel
- Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Department of Biomedical Engineering and Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Technische Universiteit Eindhoven, Den Dolech 2, 5612AZ, Eindhoven, the Netherlands
| | - Rens M J M de Vries
- Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Department of Biomedical Engineering and Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Technische Universiteit Eindhoven, Den Dolech 2, 5612AZ, Eindhoven, the Netherlands
| | - Luc Brunsveld
- Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Department of Biomedical Engineering and Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Technische Universiteit Eindhoven, Den Dolech 2, 5612AZ, Eindhoven, the Netherlands.
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28
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Han X, Wang C, Qin C, Xiang W, Fernandez-Salas E, Yang CY, Wang M, Zhao L, Xu T, Chinnaswamy K, Delproposto J, Stuckey J, Wang S. Discovery of ARD-69 as a Highly Potent Proteolysis Targeting Chimera (PROTAC) Degrader of Androgen Receptor (AR) for the Treatment of Prostate Cancer. J Med Chem 2019; 62:941-964. [PMID: 30629437 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.8b01631] [Citation(s) in RCA: 241] [Impact Index Per Article: 48.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
We report herein the discovery of highly potent PROTAC degraders of androgen receptor (AR), as exemplified by compound 34 (ARD-69). ARD-69 induces degradation of AR protein in AR-positive prostate cancer cell lines in a dose- and time-dependent manner. ARD-69 achieves DC50 values of 0.86, 0.76, and 10.4 nM in LNCaP, VCaP, and 22Rv1 AR+ prostate cancer cell lines, respectively. ARD-69 is capable of reducing the AR protein level by >95% in these prostate cancer cell lines and effectively suppressing AR-regulated gene expression. ARD-69 potently inhibits cell growth in these AR-positive prostate cancer cell lines and is >100 times more potent than AR antagonists. A single dose of ARD-69 effectively reduces the level of AR protein in xenograft tumor tissue in mice. Further optimization of ARD-69 may ultimately lead to a new therapy for AR+, castration-resistant prostate cancer.
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29
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Li D, Zhou W, Pang J, Tang Q, Zhong B, Shen C, Xiao L, Hou T. A magic drug target: Androgen receptor. Med Res Rev 2018; 39:1485-1514. [PMID: 30569509 DOI: 10.1002/med.21558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2018] [Revised: 11/20/2018] [Accepted: 11/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Androgen receptor (AR) is closely associated with a group of hormone-related diseases including the cancers of prostate, breast, ovary, pancreas, etc and anabolic deficiencies such as muscle atrophy and osteoporosis. Depending on the specific type and stage of the diseases, AR ligands including not only antagonists but also agonists and modulators are considered as potential therapeutics, which makes AR an extremely interesting drug target. Here, we at first review the current understandings on the structural characteristics of AR, and then address why and how AR is investigated as a drug target for the relevant diseases and summarize the representative antagonists and agonists targeting five prospective small molecule binding sites at AR, including ligand-binding pocket, activation function-2 site, binding function-3 site, DNA-binding domain, and N-terminal domain, providing recent insights from a target and drug development view. Further comprehensive studies on AR and AR ligands would bring fruitful information and push the therapy of AR relevant diseases forward.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Li
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Wenfang Zhou
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China.,State Key Lab of CAD&CG, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Jinping Pang
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Qin Tang
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Bingling Zhong
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Chao Shen
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Li Xiao
- School of Life Science, Huzhou University, Huzhou, China
| | - Tingjun Hou
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China.,State Key Lab of CAD&CG, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
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30
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Hwang DJ, He Y, Ponnusamy S, Mohler ML, Thiyagarajan T, McEwan IJ, Narayanan R, Miller DD. New Generation of Selective Androgen Receptor Degraders: Our Initial Design, Synthesis, and Biological Evaluation of New Compounds with Enzalutamide-Resistant Prostate Cancer Activity. J Med Chem 2018; 62:491-511. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.8b00973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Dong-Jin Hwang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee 38163, United States
| | - Yali He
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee 38163, United States
| | - Suriyan Ponnusamy
- Department of Medicine, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee 38163, United States
| | - Michael L. Mohler
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee 38163, United States
- GTx, Inc., Memphis, Tennessee 38103, United States
| | - Thirumagal Thiyagarajan
- Department of Medicine, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee 38163, United States
| | - Iain J. McEwan
- School of Medicine, Medical Sciences and Nutrition, Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, Scotland, U.K
| | - Ramesh Narayanan
- Department of Medicine, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee 38163, United States
| | - Duane D. Miller
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee 38163, United States
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31
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Liu Y, Wu M, Wang T, Xie Y, Cui X, He L, He Y, Li X, Liu M, Hu L, Cen S, Zhou J. Structural Based Screening of Antiandrogen Targeting Activation Function-2 Binding Site. Front Pharmacol 2018; 9:1419. [PMID: 30555332 PMCID: PMC6284051 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2018.01419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2018] [Accepted: 11/19/2018] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Androgen receptor (AR) plays a critical role in the development and progression of prostate cancer (PCa). Current antiandrogen therapies induce resistant mutations at the hormone binding pocket (HBP) that convert the activity of these agents from antagonist to agonist. Thus, there is a high unmet medical need for the development of novel antiandrogens which circumvent mutation-based resistance. Herein, through the analysis of AR structures with ligands binding to the activation function-2 (AF2) site, we built a combined pharmacophore model. In silico screening and the subsequent biological evaluation lead to the discovery of the novel lead compound IMB-A6 that binds to the AF2 site, which inhibits the activity of either wild-type (WT) or resistance mutated ARs. Our work demonstrates structure-based drug design is an efficient strategy to discover new antiandrogens, and provides a new class of small molecular antiandrogens for the development of novel treatment agents against PCa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yangguang Liu
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Advanced Catalysis Materials, Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, China.,Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Meng Wu
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Advanced Catalysis Materials, Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, China.,Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Tianqi Wang
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yongli Xie
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Advanced Catalysis Materials, Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, China.,Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xiangling Cui
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Advanced Catalysis Materials, Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, China.,Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Liujun He
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yang He
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaoyu Li
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Mingliang Liu
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Laixing Hu
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Shan Cen
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jinming Zhou
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Advanced Catalysis Materials, Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, China.,Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
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32
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Carabet LA, Lallous N, Leblanc E, Ban F, Morin H, Lawn S, Ghaidi F, Lee J, Mills IG, Gleave ME, Rennie PS, Cherkasov A. Computer-aided drug discovery of Myc-Max inhibitors as potential therapeutics for prostate cancer. Eur J Med Chem 2018; 160:108-119. [PMID: 30326371 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2018.09.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2018] [Revised: 09/06/2018] [Accepted: 09/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
While Myc is an essential regulator of growth in normal cells, it is also frequently associated with cancer progression, therapy-resistance and lethal outcomes in most human cancers. In prostate cancer (PCa), Myc transcription factors are implicated in the pathogenesis and progression of the full spectrum of PCa, from adenocarcinoma to advanced castration-resistant and neuroendocrine phenotypes. Though a high-value therapeutic target, clinically approved anti-Myc drugs have yet to be discovered. To elicit its oncogenic effects, Myc must form a heterodimer with its partner Max, which together bind DNA and activate transcription of a spectrum of target genes that promote cell growth, proliferation, metabolism, and apoptosis while blocking differentiation. In this study, we identified a binding site on the DNA-binding domain of the structurally ordered Myc-Max complex and employed a computer-aided rational drug discovery approach to identify small molecules that effectively inhibit Myc-Max functionality. A large-scale virtual screening protocol implementing structure-based methodologies was utilized to select a set of top-ranked compounds that were subsequently evaluated experimentally and characterized mechanistically for their ability to inhibit Myc-Max transcriptional activity and subsequent downstream functions, to reduce viability in PCa cell lines, disrupt protein-DNA interactions and to induce apoptosis as their mechanism of action. Among compounds identified that effectively inhibit Myc-Max activity with low to mid-micromolar range potency and no or minimal generic cytotoxicity, VPC-70067, a close analog of the previously identified Myc inhibitor 10058-F4, served as proof-of-concept that our in silico drug discovery strategy performed as expected. Compound VPC-70063, of a chemically different scaffold, was the best performer in a panel of in vitro assays, and the forerunner for future hit-to-lead optimization efforts. These findings lay a foundation for developing more potent, specific and clinically optimized Myc-Max inhibitors that may serve as promising therapeutics, alone or in combination with current anti-cancer treatments, for treatment of specific phenotypes or heterogeneous tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lavinia A Carabet
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6H 3Z6, Canada
| | - Nada Lallous
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6H 3Z6, Canada
| | - Eric Leblanc
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6H 3Z6, Canada
| | - Fuqiang Ban
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6H 3Z6, Canada
| | - Helene Morin
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6H 3Z6, Canada
| | - Sam Lawn
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6H 3Z6, Canada
| | - Fariba Ghaidi
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6H 3Z6, Canada
| | - Joseph Lee
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6H 3Z6, Canada
| | - Ian G Mills
- Centre for Cancer Research and Cell Biology, Queen's University, Belfast, United Kingdom; Nuffield Department of Surgical Sciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Martin E Gleave
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6H 3Z6, Canada
| | - Paul S Rennie
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6H 3Z6, Canada
| | - Artem Cherkasov
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6H 3Z6, Canada.
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33
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Dalal K, Ban F, Li H, Morin H, Roshan-Moniri M, Tam KJ, Shepherd A, Sharma A, Peacock J, Carlson ML, LeBlanc E, Perez C, Duong F, Ong CJ, Rennie PS, Cherkasov A. Selectively targeting the dimerization interface of human androgen receptor with small-molecules to treat castration-resistant prostate cancer. Cancer Lett 2018; 437:35-43. [PMID: 30165195 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2018.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2018] [Revised: 08/14/2018] [Accepted: 08/16/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Prostate cancer (PCa) is a leading cause of death for men in North America. The androgen receptor (AR) - a hormone inducible transcription factor - drives expression of tumor promoting genes and represents an important therapeutic target in PCa. The AR is activated by steroid recruitment to its ligand binding domain (LBD), followed by receptor nuclear translocation and dimerization via the DNA binding domain (DBD). Clinically used small molecules interfere with steroid recruitment and prevent AR-driven tumor growth, but are rendered ineffective by emergence of LBD mutations or expression of constitutively active variants, such as ARV7, that lack the LBD. Both drug-resistance mechanisms confound treatment of this 'castration resistant' stage of PCa (CRPC), characterized by return of AR signalling. Here, we employ computer-aided drug-design to develop small molecules that block the AR-DBD dimerization interface, an attractive target given its role in AR activation and independence from the LBD. Virtual screening on the AR-DBD structure led to development of prototypical compounds that block AR dimerization, inhibiting AR-transcriptional activity through a LBD-independent mechanism. Such inhibitors may potentially circumvent AR-dependent resistance mechanisms and directly target CRPC tumor growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kush Dalal
- Vancouver Prostate Centre (VPC), 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6H3Z6, Canada
| | - Fuqiang Ban
- Vancouver Prostate Centre (VPC), 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6H3Z6, Canada
| | - Huifang Li
- Vancouver Prostate Centre (VPC), 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6H3Z6, Canada
| | - Hélène Morin
- Vancouver Prostate Centre (VPC), 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6H3Z6, Canada
| | - Mani Roshan-Moniri
- Vancouver Prostate Centre (VPC), 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6H3Z6, Canada
| | - Kevin J Tam
- Vancouver Prostate Centre (VPC), 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6H3Z6, Canada
| | - Ashley Shepherd
- Vancouver Prostate Centre (VPC), 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6H3Z6, Canada
| | - Aishwariya Sharma
- Vancouver Prostate Centre (VPC), 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6H3Z6, Canada
| | - James Peacock
- Vancouver Prostate Centre (VPC), 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6H3Z6, Canada
| | - Michael L Carlson
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of British Columbia, 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Eric LeBlanc
- Vancouver Prostate Centre (VPC), 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6H3Z6, Canada
| | - Carl Perez
- Vancouver Prostate Centre (VPC), 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6H3Z6, Canada
| | - Franck Duong
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of British Columbia, 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Christopher J Ong
- Vancouver Prostate Centre (VPC), 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6H3Z6, Canada
| | - Paul S Rennie
- Vancouver Prostate Centre (VPC), 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6H3Z6, Canada
| | - Artem Cherkasov
- Vancouver Prostate Centre (VPC), 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6H3Z6, Canada.
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Ban F, Dalal K, LeBlanc E, Morin H, Rennie PS, Cherkasov A. Cheminformatics Driven Development of Novel Therapies for Drug Resistant Prostate Cancer. Mol Inform 2018; 37:e1800043. [PMID: 29733509 DOI: 10.1002/minf.201800043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2018] [Accepted: 04/18/2018] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Androgen receptor (AR) is a master regulator of prostate cancer (PCa), and therefore is a pivotal drug target for the treatment of PCa including its castration-resistance form (CRPC). The development of acquired resistance is a major challenge in the use of the current antiandrogens. The recent advancements in inhibiting AR activity with small molecules specifically designed to target areas distinct from the receptor's androgen binding site are carefully discussed. Our new classes of AR inhibitors of AF2 and BF3 functional sites and DBD domains designed using cheminformatics techniques are promising to circumvent various AR-dependent resistance mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fuqiang Ban
- Vancouver Prostate Centre (VPC), 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6H3Z6, Canada
| | - Kush Dalal
- Vancouver Prostate Centre (VPC), 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6H3Z6, Canada
| | - Eric LeBlanc
- Vancouver Prostate Centre (VPC), 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6H3Z6, Canada
| | - Hélène Morin
- Vancouver Prostate Centre (VPC), 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6H3Z6, Canada
| | - Paul S Rennie
- Vancouver Prostate Centre (VPC), 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6H3Z6, Canada.,Department of Urology, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6H 3Z6, Canada
| | - Artem Cherkasov
- Vancouver Prostate Centre (VPC), 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6H3Z6, Canada.,Department of Urology, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6H 3Z6, Canada
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Nevedomskaya E, Baumgart SJ, Haendler B. Recent Advances in Prostate Cancer Treatment and Drug Discovery. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:ijms19051359. [PMID: 29734647 PMCID: PMC5983695 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19051359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 160] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2018] [Revised: 04/27/2018] [Accepted: 05/01/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Novel drugs, drug sequences and combinations have improved the outcome of prostate cancer in recent years. The latest approvals include abiraterone acetate, enzalutamide and apalutamide which target androgen receptor (AR) signaling, radium-223 dichloride for reduction of bone metastases, sipuleucel-T immunotherapy and taxane-based chemotherapy. Adding abiraterone acetate to androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) in order to achieve complete androgen blockade has proven highly beneficial for treatment of locally advanced prostate cancer and metastatic hormone-sensitive prostate cancer (mHSPC). Also, ADT together with docetaxel treatment showed significant benefit in mHSPC. Ongoing clinical trials for different subgroups of prostate cancer patients include the evaluation of the second-generation AR antagonists enzalutamide, apalutamide and darolutamide, of inhibitors of the phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase (PI3K) pathway, of inhibitors of DNA damage response, of targeted alpha therapy and of prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA) targeting approaches. Advanced clinical studies with immune checkpoint inhibitors have shown limited benefits in prostate cancer and more trials are needed to demonstrate efficacy. The identification of improved, personalized treatments will be much supported by the major progress recently made in the molecular characterization of early- and late-stage prostate cancer using “omics” technologies. This has already led to novel classifications of prostate tumors based on gene expression profiles and mutation status, and should greatly help in the choice of novel targeted therapies best tailored to the needs of patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ekaterina Nevedomskaya
- Therapeutic Research Groups, Research & Development, Pharmaceuticals, Bayer AG, Müllerstr. 178, 13353 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Simon J Baumgart
- Therapeutic Research Groups, Research & Development, Pharmaceuticals, Bayer AG, Müllerstr. 178, 13353 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Bernard Haendler
- Therapeutic Research Groups, Research & Development, Pharmaceuticals, Bayer AG, Müllerstr. 178, 13353 Berlin, Germany.
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Badders NM, Korff A, Miranda HC, Vuppala PK, Smith RB, Winborn BJ, Quemin ER, Sopher BL, Dearman J, Messing J, Kim NC, Moore J, Freibaum BD, Kanagaraj AP, Fan B, Tillman H, Chen PC, Wang Y, Freeman BB, Li Y, Kim HJ, La Spada AR, Taylor JP. Selective modulation of the androgen receptor AF2 domain rescues degeneration in spinal bulbar muscular atrophy. Nat Med 2018; 24:427-437. [PMID: 29505030 PMCID: PMC5975249 DOI: 10.1038/nm.4500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2016] [Accepted: 01/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Spinal bulbar muscular atrophy (SBMA) is a motor neuron disease caused by toxic gain of function of the androgen receptor (AR). Previously, we found that co-regulator binding through the activation function-2 (AF2) domain of AR is essential for pathogenesis, suggesting that AF2 may be a potential drug target for selective modulation of toxic AR activity. We screened previously identified AF2 modulators for their ability to rescue toxicity in a Drosophila model of SBMA. We identified two compounds, tolfenamic acid (TA) and 1-[2-(4-methylphenoxy)ethyl]-2-[(2-phenoxyethyl)sulfanyl]-1H-benzimidazole (MEPB), as top candidates for rescuing lethality, locomotor function and neuromuscular junction defects in SBMA flies. Pharmacokinetic analyses in mice revealed a more favorable bioavailability and tissue retention of MEPB compared with TA in muscle, brain and spinal cord. In a preclinical trial in a new mouse model of SBMA, MEPB treatment yielded a dose-dependent rescue from loss of body weight, rotarod activity and grip strength. In addition, MEPB ameliorated neuronal loss, neurogenic atrophy and testicular atrophy, validating AF2 modulation as a potent androgen-sparing strategy for SBMA therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nisha M Badders
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Ane Korff
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, Maryland, USA
| | - Helen C Miranda
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Pradeep K Vuppala
- Preclinical Pharmacokinetic Shared Resource, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Rebecca B Smith
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Brett J Winborn
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Emmanuelle R Quemin
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Bryce L Sopher
- Department of Neurology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Jennifer Dearman
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - James Messing
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, Maryland, USA
| | - Nam Chul Kim
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Jennifer Moore
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Brian D Freibaum
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Anderson P Kanagaraj
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Baochang Fan
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Heather Tillman
- Department of Pathology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Ping-Chung Chen
- Department of Structural Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Yingzhe Wang
- Preclinical Pharmacokinetic Shared Resource, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Burgess B Freeman
- Preclinical Pharmacokinetic Shared Resource, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Yimei Li
- Department of Biostatistics, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Hong Joo Kim
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Albert R La Spada
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
- Departments of Neurology, Neurobiology and Cell Biology, and the Duke Center for Neurodegeneration & Neurotherapeutics, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - J Paul Taylor
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, Maryland, USA
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Benzothiophenone Derivatives Targeting Mutant Forms of Estrogen Receptor-α in Hormone-Resistant Breast Cancers. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:ijms19020579. [PMID: 29462880 PMCID: PMC5855801 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19020579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2018] [Revised: 02/07/2018] [Accepted: 02/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Estrogen receptor-α positive (ERα+) breast cancers represent 75% of all invasive breast cancer cases, while de novo or acquired resistance to ER-directed therapy is also on the rise. Numerous factors contribute to this phenomenon including the recently-reported ESR1 gene mutations such as Y537S, which amplifies co-activator interactions with ERα and promotes constitutive activation of ERα function. Herein, we propose that direct targeting of the activation function-2 (AF2) site on ERα represents a promising alternative therapeutic strategy to overcome mutation-driven resistance in breast cancer. A systematic computer-guided drug discovery approach was employed to develop a potent ERα inhibitor that was extensively evaluated by a series of experiments to confirm its AF2-specific activity. We demonstrate that the developed small-molecule inhibitor effectively prevents ERα-coactivator interactions and exhibits a strong anti-proliferative effect against tamoxifen-resistant cells, as well as downregulates ERα-dependent genes and effectively diminishes the receptor binding to chromatin. Notably, the identified lead compound successfully inhibits known constitutively-active, resistance-associated mutant forms of ERα observed in clinical settings. Overall, this study reports the development of a novel class of ERα AF2 inhibitors, which have the potential to effectively inhibit ERα activity by a unique mechanism and to circumvent the issue of mutation-driven resistance in breast cancer.
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Gräßle S, Susanto S, Sievers S, Tavsan E, Nieger M, Jung N, Bräse S. Synthesis and Investigation of S-Substituted 2-Mercaptobenzoimidazoles as Inhibitors of Hedgehog Signaling. ACS Med Chem Lett 2017; 8:931-935. [PMID: 28947939 DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.7b00100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2017] [Accepted: 07/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Due to the arising resistance of common drugs targeting the Hedgehog signaling pathway, the identification of new compound classes with inhibitory effect is urgently needed. We were able to identify S-alkylated 2-mercaptobenzoimidazoles as a new compound class that exhibits Hedgehog signaling activity in a low micromolar range. The scope of the 2-mercaptobenzoimidazole motif has been investigated by the syntheses of diverse derivatives, revealing that the elongation of the linker unit and the exchange of particular substitution patterns are tolerable with respect to the activity of the compound class.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone Gräßle
- Institute
of Toxicology and Genetics, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Campus
North, Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Steven Susanto
- Institute
of Toxicology and Genetics, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Campus
North, Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Sonja Sievers
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Physiology, Otto-Hahn-Str. 11, 44227 Dortmund, Germany
| | - Emel Tavsan
- Institute
of Toxicology and Genetics, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Campus
North, Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Martin Nieger
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Nicole Jung
- Institute
of Toxicology and Genetics, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Campus
North, Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
- Institute
of Organic Chemistry, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Fritz-Haber-Weg
6, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Stefan Bräse
- Institute
of Toxicology and Genetics, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Campus
North, Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
- Institute
of Organic Chemistry, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Fritz-Haber-Weg
6, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
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Perera L, Li Y, Coons LA, Houtman R, van Beuningen R, Goodwin B, Auerbach SS, Teng CT. Binding of bisphenol A, bisphenol AF, and bisphenol S on the androgen receptor: Coregulator recruitment and stimulation of potential interaction sites. Toxicol In Vitro 2017; 44:287-302. [PMID: 28751236 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2017.07.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2017] [Revised: 06/20/2017] [Accepted: 07/20/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Bisphenol A (BPA), bisphenol AF (BPAF), and bisphenol S (BPS) are well known endocrine disruptors. Previous in vitro studies showed that these compounds antagonize androgen receptor (AR) transcriptional activity; however, the mechanisms of action are unclear. In the present study, we investigated interactions of coregulator peptides with BPA, BPAF, or BPS at the AR complexes using Micro Array for Real-time Coregulator Nuclear Receptor Interaction (MARCoNI) assays and assessed the binding of these compounds on AR by molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. The set of coregulator peptides that are recruited by BPA-bound AR, either positively/or negatively, are different from those recruited by the agonist R1881-bound AR. Therefore, the data indicates that BPA shows no similarities to R1881 and suggests that it may recruit other coregulators to the AR complex. BPAF-bound AR recruits about 70-80% of the same coregulator peptides as BPA-bound AR. Meanwhile, BPS-bound AR interacts with only few peptides compared to BPA or BPAF-bound AR. MD results show that multiple binding sites with varying binding affinities are available on AR for BPA, BPAF, and BPS, indicating the availability of modified binding surfaces on AR for coregulator interactions. These findings help explain some of the distinct AR-related toxicities observed with bisphenol chemicals and raise concern for the use of substitutes for BPA in commercial products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lalith Perera
- Genome Integrity and Structural Biology Laboratory, United States
| | - Yin Li
- Reproductive and Developmental Biology Laboratory, DIR, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, United States
| | - Laurel A Coons
- Reproductive and Developmental Biology Laboratory, DIR, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, United States
| | - Rene Houtman
- PamGene International B.V., Wolvenhoek 10, NL-5211 HH 's-Hertogenboch, The Netherlands
| | - Rinie van Beuningen
- PamGene International B.V., Wolvenhoek 10, NL-5211 HH 's-Hertogenboch, The Netherlands
| | - Bonnie Goodwin
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD 20850, United States
| | - Scott S Auerbach
- Biomolecular Screening Branch, DNTP, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, United States
| | - Christina T Teng
- Biomolecular Screening Branch, DNTP, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, United States.
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Ban F, Dalal K, Li H, LeBlanc E, Rennie PS, Cherkasov A. Best Practices of Computer-Aided Drug Discovery: Lessons Learned from the Development of a Preclinical Candidate for Prostate Cancer with a New Mechanism of Action. J Chem Inf Model 2017; 57:1018-1028. [PMID: 28441481 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jcim.7b00137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Small-molecule drug design is a complex and iterative decision-making process relying on pre-existing knowledge and driven by experimental data. Low-molecular-weight chemicals represent an attractive therapeutic option, as they are readily accessible to organic synthesis and can easily be characterized.1 Their potency as well as pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties can be systematically and rationally investigated and ultimately optimized via expert science behind medicinal chemistry and methods of computer-aided drug design (CADD). In recent years, significant advances in molecular modeling techniques have afforded a variety of tools to effectively identify potential binding pockets on prospective targets, to map key interactions between ligands and their binding sites, to construct and assess energetics of the resulting complexes, to predict ADMET properties of candidate compounds, and to systematically analyze experimental and computational data to derive meaningful structure-activity relationships leading to the creation of a drug candidate. This Perspective describes a real case of a drug discovery campaign accomplished in a relatively short time with limited resources. The study integrated an arsenal of available molecular modeling techniques with an array of experimental tools to successfully develop a novel class of potent and selective androgen receptor inhibitors with a novel mode of action. It resulted in the largest academic licensing deal in Canadian history, totaling $142M. This project exemplifies the importance of team science, an integrative approach to drug discovery, and the use of best practices in CADD. We posit that the lessons learned and best practices for executing an effective CADD project can be applied, with similar success, to many drug discovery projects in both academia and industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fuqiang Ban
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, Department of Urologic Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The University of British Columbia , 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6H 3Z6
| | - Kush Dalal
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, Department of Urologic Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The University of British Columbia , 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6H 3Z6
| | - Huifang Li
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, Department of Urologic Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The University of British Columbia , 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6H 3Z6
| | - Eric LeBlanc
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, Department of Urologic Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The University of British Columbia , 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6H 3Z6
| | - Paul S Rennie
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, Department of Urologic Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The University of British Columbia , 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6H 3Z6
| | - Artem Cherkasov
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, Department of Urologic Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The University of British Columbia , 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6H 3Z6
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Wyatt AW, Azad AA, Volik SV, Annala M, Beja K, McConeghy B, Haegert A, Warner EW, Mo F, Brahmbhatt S, Shukin R, Le Bihan S, Gleave ME, Nykter M, Collins CC, Chi KN. Genomic Alterations in Cell-Free DNA and Enzalutamide Resistance in Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer. JAMA Oncol 2017; 2:1598-1606. [PMID: 27148695 DOI: 10.1001/jamaoncol.2016.0494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 274] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Importance The molecular landscape underpinning response to the androgen receptor (AR) antagonist enzalutamide in patients with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC) is undefined. Consequently, there is an urgent need for practical biomarkers to guide therapy selection and elucidate resistance. Although tissue biopsies are impractical to perform routinely in the majority of patients with mCRPC, the analysis of plasma cell-free DNA (cfDNA) has recently emerged as a minimally invasive method to explore tumor characteristics. Objective To reveal genomic characteristics from cfDNA associated with clinical outcomes during enzalutamide treatment. Design, Setting, and Participants Plasma samples were obtained from August 4, 2013, to July 31, 2015, at a single academic institution (British Columbia Cancer Agency) from 65 patients with mCRPC. We collected temporal plasma samples (at baseline, 12 weeks, end of treatment) for circulating cfDNA and performed array comparative genomic hybridization copy number profiling and deep AR gene sequencing. Samples collected at end of treatment were also subjected to targeted sequencing of 19 prostate cancer-associated genes. Exposure Enzalutamide, 160 mg, daily orally. Main Outcomes and Measures Prostate-specific antigen response rate (decline ≥50% from baseline confirmed ≥3 weeks later). Radiographic (as per Prostate Cancer Working Group 2 Criteria) and/or clinical progression (defined as worsening disease-related symptoms necessitating a change in anticancer therapy and/or deterioration in Eastern Cooperative Group performance status ≥2 levels). Results The 65 patients had a median (interquartile range) age of 74 (68-79) years. Prostate-specific antigen response rate to enzalutamide treatment was 38% (25 of 65), while median clinical/radiographic progression-free survival was 3.5 (95% CI, 2.1-5.0) months. Cell-free DNA was isolated from 122 of 125 plasma samples, and targeted sequencing was successful in 119 of 122. AR mutations and/or copy number alterations were robustly detected in 48% (31 of 65) and 60% (18 of 30) of baseline and progression samples, respectively. Detection of AR amplification, heavily mutated AR (≥2 mutations), and RB1 loss were associated with worse progression-free survival, with hazard ratios of 2.92 (95% CI, 1.59-5.37), 3.94 (95% CI, 1.46-10.64), and 4.46 (95% CI, 2.28-8.74), respectively. AR mutations exhibited clonal selection during treatment, including an increase in glucocorticoid-sensitive AR L702H and promiscuous AR T878A in patients with prior abiraterone treatment. At the time of progression, cfDNA sequencing revealed mutations or copy number changes in all patients tested, including clinically actionable alterations in DNA damage repair genes and PI3K pathway genes, and a high frequency (4 of 14) of activating CTNNB1 mutations. Conclusions and Relevance Clinically informative genomic profiling of cfDNA was feasible in nearly all patients with mCRPC and can provide important insights into enzalutamide response and resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander W Wyatt
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, Department of Urologic Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Arun A Azad
- Department of Medical Oncology, British Columbia Cancer Agency, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada3School of Clinical Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Stanislav V Volik
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, Department of Urologic Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Matti Annala
- Institute of Biosciences and Medical Technology, Tampere, Finland
| | - Kevin Beja
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, Department of Urologic Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Brian McConeghy
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, Department of Urologic Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Anne Haegert
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, Department of Urologic Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Evan W Warner
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, Department of Urologic Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Fan Mo
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, Department of Urologic Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Sonal Brahmbhatt
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, Department of Urologic Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Robert Shukin
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, Department of Urologic Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Stephane Le Bihan
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, Department of Urologic Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Martin E Gleave
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, Department of Urologic Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Matti Nykter
- Institute of Biosciences and Medical Technology, Tampere, Finland
| | - Colin C Collins
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, Department of Urologic Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Kim N Chi
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, Department of Urologic Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada2Department of Medical Oncology, British Columbia Cancer Agency, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
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Lallous N, Leblanc E, Munuganti RSN, Hassona MDH, Nakouzi NA, Awrey S, Morin H, Roshan-Moniri M, Singh K, Lawn S, Yamazaki T, Adomat HH, Andre C, Daugaard M, Young RN, Guns EST, Rennie PS, Cherkasov A. Targeting Binding Function-3 of the Androgen Receptor Blocks Its Co-Chaperone Interactions, Nuclear Translocation, and Activation. Mol Cancer Ther 2016; 15:2936-2945. [PMID: 27765852 DOI: 10.1158/1535-7163.mct-16-0354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2016] [Revised: 08/16/2016] [Accepted: 09/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The development of new antiandrogens, such as enzalutamide, or androgen synthesis inhibitors like abiraterone has improved patient outcomes in the treatment of advanced prostate cancer. However, due to the development of drug resistance and tumor cell survival, a majority of these patients progress to the refractory state of castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). Thus, newer therapeutic agents and a better understanding of their mode of action are needed for treating these CRPC patients. We demonstrated previously that targeting the Binding Function 3 (BF3) pocket of the androgen receptor (AR) has great potential for treating patients with CRPC. Here, we explore the functional activity of this site by using an advanced BF3-specific small molecule (VPC-13566) that was previously reported to effectively inhibit AR transcriptional activity and to displace the BAG1L peptide from the BF3 pocket. We show that VPC-13566 inhibits the growth of various prostate cancer cell lines, including an enzalutamide-resistant cell line, and reduces the growth of AR-dependent prostate cancer xenograft tumors in mice. Importantly, we have used this AR-BF3 binder as a chemical probe and identified a co-chaperone, small glutamine-rich tetratricopeptide repeat (TPR)-containing protein alpha (SGTA), as an important AR-BF3 interacting partner. Furthermore, we used this AR-BF3-directed small molecule to demonstrate that inhibition of AR activity through the BF3 functionality can block translocation of the receptor into the nucleus. These findings suggest that targeting the BF3 site has potential clinical importance, especially in the treatment of CRPC and provide novel insights on the functional role of the BF3 pocket. Mol Cancer Ther; 15(12); 2936-45. ©2016 AACR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nada Lallous
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Eric Leblanc
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Ravi S N Munuganti
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Mohamed D H Hassona
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Nader Al Nakouzi
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Shannon Awrey
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Helene Morin
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Mani Roshan-Moniri
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Kriti Singh
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Sam Lawn
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Takeshi Yamazaki
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Hans H Adomat
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Christophe Andre
- Department of Chemistry, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada
| | - Mads Daugaard
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Robert N Young
- Department of Chemistry, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada
| | | | - Paul S Rennie
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Artem Cherkasov
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.
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Xu D, Guo S, Chen Z, Bao Y, Huang F, Xu D, Zhang X, Zeng Z, Zhou H, Zhang X, Su Y. Binding characterization, synthesis and biological evaluation of RXRα antagonists targeting the coactivator binding site. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2016; 26:3846-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2016.07.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2016] [Revised: 07/10/2016] [Accepted: 07/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Tice CM, Zheng YJ. Non-canonical modulators of nuclear receptors. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2016; 26:4157-64. [PMID: 27503683 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2016.07.067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2016] [Revised: 07/19/2016] [Accepted: 07/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Like G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) and protein kinases, nuclear receptors (NRs) are a rich source of pharmaceutical targets. Over 80 NR-targeting drugs have been approved for 18 NRs. The focus of drug discovery in NRs has hitherto been on identifying ligands that bind to the canonical ligand binding pockets of the C-terminal ligand binding domains (LBDs). Due to the development of drug resistance and selectivity concerns, there has been considerable interest in exploring other, non-canonical ligand binding sites. Unfortunately, the potencies of compounds binding at other sites have generally not been sufficient for clinical development. However, the situation has changed dramatically over the last 3years, as compounds with sufficient potency have been reported for several NR targets. Here we review recent developments in this area from a medicinal chemistry point of view in the hope of stimulating further interest in this area of research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Colin M Tice
- Vitae Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 502 West Office Center Drive, Fort Washington, PA 19034, United States
| | - Ya-Jun Zheng
- Vitae Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 502 West Office Center Drive, Fort Washington, PA 19034, United States
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Biron E, Bédard F. Recent progress in the development of protein-protein interaction inhibitors targeting androgen receptor-coactivator binding in prostate cancer. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2016. [PMID: 26196120 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The androgen receptor (AR) is a key regulator for the growth, differentiation and survival of prostate cancer cells. Identified as a primary target for the treatment of prostate cancer, many therapeutic strategies have been developed to attenuate AR signaling in prostate cancer cells. While frontline androgen-deprivation therapies targeting either the production or action of androgens usually yield favorable responses in prostate cancer patients, a significant number acquire treatment resistance. Known as the castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC), the treatment options are limited for this advanced stage. It has been shown that AR signaling is restored in CRPC due to many aberrant mechanisms such as AR mutations, amplification or expression of constitutively active splice-variants. Coregulator recruitment is a crucial regulatory step in AR signaling and the direct blockade of coactivator binding to AR offers the opportunity to develop therapeutic agents that would remain effective in prostate cancer cells resistant to conventional endocrine therapies. Structural analyses of the AR have identified key surfaces involved in protein-protein interaction with coregulators that have been recently used to design and develop promising AR-coactivator binding inhibitors. In this review we will discuss the design and development of small-molecule inhibitors targeting the AR-coactivator interactions for the treatment of prostate cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Biron
- Faculty of Pharmacy and Centre de recherche en endocrinologie moléculaire et oncologique et génomique humaine, Université Laval, Canada; Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry, CHU de Québec Research Centre, G1 V 4G2, Québec, QC, Canada.
| | - François Bédard
- Faculty of Pharmacy and Centre de recherche en endocrinologie moléculaire et oncologique et génomique humaine, Université Laval, Canada; Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry, CHU de Québec Research Centre, G1 V 4G2, Québec, QC, Canada
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Coleman DJ, Van Hook K, King CJ, Schwartzman J, Lisac R, Urrutia J, Sehrawat A, Woodward J, Wang NJ, Gulati R, Thomas GV, Beer TM, Gleave M, Korkola JE, Gao L, Heiser LM, Alumkal JJ. Cellular androgen content influences enzalutamide agonism of F877L mutant androgen receptor. Oncotarget 2016; 7:40690-40703. [PMID: 27276681 PMCID: PMC5130036 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.9816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2016] [Accepted: 05/07/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Prostate cancer is the most commonly diagnosed and second-most lethal cancer among men in the United States. The vast majority of prostate cancer deaths are due to castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) - the lethal form of the disease that has progressed despite therapies that interfere with activation of androgen receptor (AR) signaling. One emergent resistance mechanism to medical castration is synthesis of intratumoral androgens that activate the AR. This insight led to the development of the AR antagonist enzalutamide. However, resistance to enzalutamide invariably develops, and disease progression is nearly universal. One mechanism of resistance to enzalutamide is an F877L mutation in the AR ligand-binding domain that can convert enzalutamide to an agonist of AR activity. However, mechanisms that contribute to the agonist switch had not been fully clarified, and there were no therapies to block AR F877L. Using cell line models of castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC), we determined that cellular androgen content influences enzalutamide agonism of mutant F877L AR. Further, enzalutamide treatment of AR F877L-expressing cell lines recapitulated the effects of androgen activation of F877L AR or wild-type AR. Because the BET bromodomain inhibitor JQ-1 was previously shown to block androgen activation of wild-type AR, we tested JQ-1 in AR F877L-expressing CRPC models. We determined that JQ-1 suppressed androgen or enzalutamide activation of mutant F877L AR and suppressed growth of mutant F877L AR CRPC tumors in vivo, demonstrating a new strategy to treat tumors harboring this mutation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J. Coleman
- OHSU Knight Cancer Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon, U.S.A
| | - Kathryn Van Hook
- OHSU Knight Cancer Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon, U.S.A
| | - Carly J. King
- OHSU Knight Cancer Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon, U.S.A
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon, U.S.A
| | - Jacob Schwartzman
- OHSU Knight Cancer Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon, U.S.A
| | - Robert Lisac
- OHSU Knight Cancer Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon, U.S.A
| | - Joshua Urrutia
- OHSU Knight Cancer Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon, U.S.A
| | - Archana Sehrawat
- OHSU Knight Cancer Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon, U.S.A
| | - Josha Woodward
- OHSU Knight Cancer Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon, U.S.A
| | - Nicholas J. Wang
- OHSU Knight Cancer Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon, U.S.A
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon, U.S.A
| | - Roman Gulati
- Division of Public Health Sciences, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, U.S.A
| | - George V. Thomas
- OHSU Knight Cancer Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon, U.S.A
| | - Tomasz M. Beer
- OHSU Knight Cancer Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon, U.S.A
| | - Martin Gleave
- The Vancouver Prostate Centre and Department of Urologic Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - James E. Korkola
- OHSU Knight Cancer Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon, U.S.A
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon, U.S.A
| | - Lina Gao
- OHSU Knight Cancer Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon, U.S.A
| | - Laura M. Heiser
- OHSU Knight Cancer Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon, U.S.A
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon, U.S.A
| | - Joshi J. Alumkal
- OHSU Knight Cancer Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon, U.S.A
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Guo T, Han SL, Liu YC, Liu Y, Liu HM. Convenient synthesis of antiproliferative 2,3-dihydro-2,3′-bisindoles via dimerization of N -H indole derivatives. Tetrahedron Lett 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tetlet.2016.01.093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Lallous N, Volik SV, Awrey S, Leblanc E, Tse R, Murillo J, Singh K, Azad AA, Wyatt AW, LeBihan S, Chi KN, Gleave ME, Rennie PS, Collins CC, Cherkasov A. Functional analysis of androgen receptor mutations that confer anti-androgen resistance identified in circulating cell-free DNA from prostate cancer patients. Genome Biol 2016; 17:10. [PMID: 26813233 PMCID: PMC4729137 DOI: 10.1186/s13059-015-0864-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2015] [Accepted: 12/29/2015] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The androgen receptor (AR) is a pivotal drug target for the treatment of prostate cancer, including its lethal castration-resistant (CRPC) form. All current non-steroidal AR antagonists, such as hydroxyflutamide, bicalutamide, and enzalutamide, target the androgen binding site of the receptor, competing with endogenous androgenic steroids. Several AR mutations in this binding site have been associated with poor prognosis and resistance to conventional prostate cancer drugs. In order to develop an effective CRPC therapy, it is crucial to understand the effects of these mutations on the functionality of the AR and its ability to interact with endogenous steroids and conventional AR inhibitors. RESULTS We previously utilized circulating cell-free DNA (cfDNA) sequencing technology to examine the AR gene for the presence of mutations in CRPC patients. By modifying our sequencing and data analysis approaches, we identify four additional single AR mutations and five mutation combinations associated with CRPC. Importantly, we conduct experimental functionalization of all the AR mutations identified by the current and previous cfDNA sequencing to reveal novel gain-of-function scenarios. Finally, we evaluate the effect of a novel class of AR inhibitors targeting the binding function 3 (BF3) site on the activity of CRPC-associated AR mutants. CONCLUSIONS This work demonstrates the feasibility of a prognostic and/or diagnostic platform combining the direct identification of AR mutants from patients' serum, and the functional characterization of these mutants in order to provide personalized recommendations regarding the best future therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nada Lallous
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak St., Vancouver, BC, V6H 3Z6, Canada.
| | - Stanislav V Volik
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak St., Vancouver, BC, V6H 3Z6, Canada.
- Laboratory for Advanced Genome Analysis (LAGA), Vancouver Prostate Centre, 2660 Oak St., Vancouver, BC, V6H 3Z6, Canada.
| | - Shannon Awrey
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak St., Vancouver, BC, V6H 3Z6, Canada.
| | - Eric Leblanc
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak St., Vancouver, BC, V6H 3Z6, Canada.
| | - Ronnie Tse
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak St., Vancouver, BC, V6H 3Z6, Canada.
| | - Josef Murillo
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak St., Vancouver, BC, V6H 3Z6, Canada.
| | - Kriti Singh
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak St., Vancouver, BC, V6H 3Z6, Canada.
| | - Arun A Azad
- Department of Medical Oncology, BC Cancer Agency, 600 West 10th Avenue, Vancouver, BC, V5Z 4E6, Canada.
| | - Alexander W Wyatt
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak St., Vancouver, BC, V6H 3Z6, Canada.
| | - Stephane LeBihan
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak St., Vancouver, BC, V6H 3Z6, Canada.
- Laboratory for Advanced Genome Analysis (LAGA), Vancouver Prostate Centre, 2660 Oak St., Vancouver, BC, V6H 3Z6, Canada.
| | - Kim N Chi
- Department of Medical Oncology, BC Cancer Agency, 600 West 10th Avenue, Vancouver, BC, V5Z 4E6, Canada.
| | - Martin E Gleave
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak St., Vancouver, BC, V6H 3Z6, Canada.
| | - Paul S Rennie
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak St., Vancouver, BC, V6H 3Z6, Canada.
| | - Colin C Collins
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak St., Vancouver, BC, V6H 3Z6, Canada.
- Laboratory for Advanced Genome Analysis (LAGA), Vancouver Prostate Centre, 2660 Oak St., Vancouver, BC, V6H 3Z6, Canada.
| | - Artem Cherkasov
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak St., Vancouver, BC, V6H 3Z6, Canada.
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Suh JH, Chattopadhyay A, Sieglaff DH, Storer Samaniego C, Cox MB, Webb P. Similarities and Distinctions in Actions of Surface-Directed and Classic Androgen Receptor Antagonists. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0137103. [PMID: 26332122 PMCID: PMC4557941 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0137103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2015] [Accepted: 08/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The androgen receptor (AR) surface-directed antagonist MJC13 inhibits AR function and proliferation of prostate cancer (PC) cells. These effects are related to arrest of an AR/chaperone complex in the cytoplasm. Here, we compared MJC13 and classic AR antagonists such as flutamide and bicalutamide. Microarray analysis and confirmatory qRT-PCR reveals that MJC13 and flutamide inhibit dihydrotestosterone (DHT)-dependent genes in LNCaP PC cells. Both compounds are equally effective on a genome wide basis and as effective as second generation AR antagonists (MDV3100, ARN-509) at selected genes. MJC13 inhibits AR binding to the prostate specific antigen (PSA) promoter more strongly than flutamide, consistent with different mechanisms of action. Examination of efficacy of MJC13 in conditions that reflect aspects castrate resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) reveals that it inhibits flutamide activation of an AR mutant (ART877A) that emerges during flutamide withdrawal syndrome, but displays greatly restricted gene-specific activity in 22Rv1 cells that express a constitutively active truncated AR and is inactive against glucocorticoid receptor (GR), which can co-opt androgen-dependent signaling networks in CRPC. Importantly, MJC13 inhibits AR interactions with SRC2 and β-catenin in the nucleus and, unlike flutamide, strongly inhibits amplification of AR activity obtained with transfected SRC2 and β-catenin. MJC13 also inhibits DHT and β-catenin-enhanced cell division in LNCaP cells. Thus, a surface-directed antagonist can block AR activity in some conditions in which a classic antagonist fails and may display utility in particular forms of CRPC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji Ho Suh
- Genomic Medicine Program, Houston Methodist Research Institute, 66670 Bertner Avenue, R8-114, Houston, Texas, 77030, United States of America
| | - Arundhati Chattopadhyay
- Genomic Medicine Program, Houston Methodist Research Institute, 66670 Bertner Avenue, R8-114, Houston, Texas, 77030, United States of America
| | - Douglas H. Sieglaff
- Genomic Medicine Program, Houston Methodist Research Institute, 66670 Bertner Avenue, R8-114, Houston, Texas, 77030, United States of America
| | - Cheryl Storer Samaniego
- Border Biomedical Research Center, Dept. of Biological Sciences, University of Texas at El Paso, 500 W. University Ave., El Paso, Texas, 79902, United States of America
| | - Marc B. Cox
- Border Biomedical Research Center, Dept. of Biological Sciences, University of Texas at El Paso, 500 W. University Ave., El Paso, Texas, 79902, United States of America
| | - Paul Webb
- Genomic Medicine Program, Houston Methodist Research Institute, 66670 Bertner Avenue, R8-114, Houston, Texas, 77030, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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50
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Recent advances in allosteric androgen receptor inhibitors for the potential treatment of castration-resistant prostate cancer. Pharm Pat Anal 2015; 4:387-402. [DOI: 10.4155/ppa.15.20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Prostate cancer (PC) is the second most frequent cause of male cancer death in the USA. As such, the androgen receptor (AR) plays a crucial role in PC, making AR the major therapeutic target for PC. Current antiandrogen chemotherapy prevents androgen binding to the ligand-binding pocket (LBP) of AR. However, PC frequently recurs despite treatment and it progresses to castration-resistant prostate cancer. Behind this regression is renewed AR signaling initiated via mutations in the LBP. Hence, there is a critical need to improve the therapeutic options to regulate AR activity in sites other than the LBP. Herein, recently disclosed (2010–2015) allosteric AR inhibitors are summarized and a perspective on the potential pharmaceutical intervention at these sites is provided.
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