Remediation of benzo(a)pyrene in contaminated sediments using peroxy-acid

Experimentally and spectroscopically evidenced mechanistic study of butyl peroxyacid oxidative degradation of benzo[a]pyrene in soil

Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) is a major indicator of soil contamination and categorized as a highly persistent, carcinogenic, and mutagenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon. An advanced peroxyacid oxidation process was developed to reduce soil pollution caused by BaP originating from creosote spills from railroad sleepers. The pH, organic matter, particle size distribution of soil, and concentrations of BaP and heavy metals (Cd, Cu, Zn, Pb, and As) in the BaP-contaminated soils were estimated. A batch experiment was conducted to determine the effects of organic acid type, soil particle size, stirring speed, and reaction time on the peroxyacid oxidation of BaP in the soil samples. Additionally, the effect of the organic acid concentration on the peroxyacid degradation of BaP was investigated using an oxidizing agent in spiked soil with and without hydrogen peroxide. The results of the oxidation process indicated that BaP and heavy metal residuals were below acceptable Korean standards. A significant difference in the oxidative degradation of BaP was observed between the spiked and natural soil samples. The formation of a peroxyacid intermediate was primarily responsible for the enhanced BaP oxidation. Further, butyric acid could be reused thrice without losing the efficacy (<90%). The systematic peroxyacid oxidative degradation mechanism of BaP was also discussed. A qualitative analysis of the by-products of the BaP reaction was conducted, and their corresponding toxicities were determined for possible field applications. The findings conclude that the developed peroxyacid oxidation method has potential applications in the treatment of BaP-contaminated soils.

The catabolic pathways of in situ rhizosphere PAH degraders and the main factors driving PAH rhizoremediation in oil-contaminated soil

Rhizoremediation is a potential technique for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) remediation; however, the catabolic pathways of in situ rhizosphere PAH degraders and the main factors driving PAH rhizoremediation remain unclear. To address these issues, stable-isotope-probing coupled with metagenomics and molecular ecological network analyses were first used to investigate the phenanthrene rhizoremediation by three different prairie grasses in this study. All rhizospheres exhibited a significant increase in phenanthrene removal and markedly modified the diversity of phenanthrene degraders by increasing their populations and interactions with other microbes. Of all the active phenanthrene degraders, Marinobacter and Enterobacteriaceae dominated in the bare and switchgrass rhizosphere respectively; Achromobacter was markedly enriched in ryegrass and tall fescue rhizospheres. Metagenomes of ¹³ C-DNA illustrated several complete pathways of phenanthrene degradation for each rhizosphere, which clearly explained their unique rhizoremediation mechanisms. Additionally, propanoate and inositol phosphate of carbohydrates were identified as the dominant factors that drove PAH rhizoremediation by strengthening the ecological networks of soil microbial communities. This was verified by the results of rhizospheric and non-rhizospheric treatments supplemented with these two substances, further confirming their key roles in PAH removal and in situ PAH rhizoremediation. Our study offers novel insights into the mechanisms of in situ rhizoremediation at PAH-contaminated sites.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon reaction rates with peroxy-acid treatment: prediction of reactivity using local ionization potential

Property-Encoded Surface Translator (PEST) descriptors were found to be correlated with the degradation rates of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) by the peroxy-acid process. Reaction rate constants (k) in hr(-1) for nine PAHs (acenaphthene, anthracene, benzo[a]pyrene, benzo[k]fluoranthene, fluoranthene, fluorene, naphthalene, phenanthrene, and pyrene) were determined by a peroxy-acid treatment method that utilized acetic acid, hydrogen peroxide, and a sulphuric acid catalyst to degrade the polyaromatic structures. Molecular properties of the selected nine PAHs were derived from structures optimized at B3LYP/6-31G(d) and HF/6-31G(d) levels of theory. Properties of adiabatic and vertical ionization potential (IP), highest occupied molecular orbitals (HOMO), HOMO/lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) gap energies and HOMO/singly occupied molecular orbital (SOMO) gap energies were not correlated with rates of peroxy-acid reaction. PEST descriptors were calculated from B3LYP/6-31G(d) optimized structures and found to have significant levels of correlation with k. PIP Min described the minimum local IP on the surface of the molecule and was found to be related to k. PEST technology appears to be an accurate method in predicting reactivity and could prove to be a valuable asset in building treatment models and in remediation design for PAHs and other organic contaminants in the environment.

Critical factors in chemical characterization for the evaluation of decontamination in solids using advanced oxidation

Advanced oxidation technologies (AOT) have been applied to the treatment of numerous organic pollutants embedded in solid matrices (e.g., soil, sediments, sludge, etc.). Given potentially strong matrix-analyte interactions in solids, chemical characterization of both the target contaminants and their oxidation products is critical for the evaluation of any decontamination method. The success of AOT applications has been evaluated either directly (based on the removal of original contaminants, extent of mineralization, and/or formation of by-products), or indirectly, e.g., based on toxicity or chemical oxygen demand. Since indirect methods do not provide comprehensive understanding of the pollutants' fate, direct analytical approaches are covered in this review while focusing on sample preparation and detailed chromatographic characterization, assessing the strengths and weaknesses of these methods. The significance of sample preparation, in particular extraction, is discussed with respect to the nature of matrix-analyte interactions, as those may also affect the selection of the remediation method. The ultimate goal of this review is the presentation of methods employed to achieve mass balance closure, which is essential to ensure the full understanding of degradation pathways.

Oxidation of PAHs in a simplified system using peroxy-acid and glass beads: Identification of oxidizing species

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are organic contaminants of concern due to their ubiquity, persistence in the natural environment and adverse health effects. Numerous studies have looked into the removal and treatment of these contaminants, with mixed results. High molecular weight PAHs have been particularly problematic due to their hydrophobicity and high affinity for organics, resulting in mass transfer limitations for even the fastest advanced oxidation processes (AOPs). The peroxy-acid process has been used to successfully treat PAH contaminated matrices. Experiments were conducted on benzo[a]pyrene contaminated glass beads in order to elucidate the reaction mechanisms responsible for the effectiveness of this process. For the first time peracetic acid (PAA) was identified as the important oxidant in this reaction. Different v/v/v ratios of hydrogen peroxide/acetic acid/DI water were studied which illustrated the importance of reaction ratio on oxidant concentration and rate of formation. Approximately 60% degradation of benzo[a]pyrene was achieved in 24 hours with 1.7% PAA. Observations of the reaction kinetics suggest that the slow desorption/dissolution of benzo[a]pyrene limits the efficiency of the peroxy-acid process. Modifications of the reaction setup supported this observation as treatment efficiencies increased with reactive surface area, and an increase in system agitation. These limitations were also overcome by increasing the concentration of PAA delivered to the contaminated matrix. Greater than 80% degradation of benzo[a]pyrene was achieved in 24 hours with approximately 9.2% PAA.

Pressure-assisted ozonation of PCB and PAH contaminated sediments

Sediment contamination by recalcitrant organics such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) is prevalent and of a great concern. Remediation efforts are hampered by the hydrophobic nature of the contaminants that limits their availability as well as by the sediment matrix that limits their exposure to treatment agents. Using contaminated sediment samples from the Passaic River, St. Louis River, Waukegan Harbor, and Wells National Estuarine Research Reserve, this research demonstrated a new ozonation technique that incorporates rapid, successive cycles of pressurization (690 kPa) and depressurization, enabling more effective treatment than conventional ozonation would. Conventional ozonation reached maximum 60% and 40% removal of PAHs from the Passaic River (40 mg kg(-1) initially) and St. Louis River sediment (520 mg kg(-1) initially), respectively, in 1h; however, removals ceased despite prolonged treatment for 2h. The pressure-assisted technique removed 96% of PAHs from both river sediments within 1h; it completely removed both PAHs (16 mg kg(-1) initially) and PCBs (5.1 mg kg(-1) initially) from the Waukegan Harbor sediment in 0.5 h. The heightened treatment is explained by soil aggregate fracturing upon pressure cycles that exposes the contaminants as well as by the confluence of hydrophobic contaminants and O(3) at the gas-liquid interface in the presence of microbubbles. The technique is expected to accelerate O(3) treatment of a wide range of organic contaminants, and it may provide treatment to dredged and stored contaminated sediment.

PAH removal from spiked municipal wastewater sewage sludge using biological, chemical and electrochemical treatments

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) have been widely studied due to their presence in all the environmental media and toxicity to life. These molecules are strongly adsorbed on the particulate matters of soils, sludges or sediments because of their strong hydrophobicity which makes them less bioavailability, thus limiting their bioremediation. Different sludge treatment processes were tested to evaluate their performances for PAH removal from sludge prealably doped with 11 PAHs (5.5mg each PAH kg(-1) of dry matter (DM)): two biological processes (mesophilic aerobic digestion (MAD) and simultaneous sewage sludge digestion and metal leaching (METIX-BS)) were tested to evaluate PAH biodegradation in sewage sludge. In parallel, two chemical processes (quite similar Fenton processes: chemical metal leaching (METIX-AC) and chemical stabilization (STABIOX)) and one electrochemical process (electrochemical stabilization (ELECSTAB)) were tested to measure PAH removal by these oxidative processes. Moreover, PAH solubilisation from sludge by addition of a nonionic surfactant Tween 80 (Tw80) was also tested. The best yields of PAH removal were obtained by MAD and METIX-BS with more than 95% 3-ring PAH removal after a 21-day treatment period. Tw80 addition during MAD treatment increased 4-ring PAHs removal rate. In addition, more than 45% of 3-ring PAHs were removed from sludge by METIX-AC and during ELECSTAB process were quiet good with approximately 62% of 3-ring PAHs removal. However, little weaker removal of 3-ring PAHs (<35%) by STABIOX. None of the tested processes were efficient for the elimination of high molecular weight (> or = 5-ring) PAHs from sludge.