Evaluation of alternative environmentally friendly matrix solid phase dispersion solid supports for the simultaneous extraction of 15 pesticides of different chemical classes from drinking water treatment sludge

Global performance and trends of research on emerging contaminants in sewage sludge: A Bibliometric Analysis from 1990 to 2023

The pervasive occurrence of emerging contaminants (ECs) in sewage sludge (SWS) poses significant safety challenges concerning the processing, disposal, and secure application, ultimately jeopardizing both human health and the ecological environment. To comprehensively comprehend the evolutionary trajectories, present state, and research advancements in the field of ECs in SWS, a systematic was conducted, scrutinizing the annual publication quantity, disciplinary distribution, core authors, involved nations/regions, pertinent keywords, and citation status of 2082 research publications related to ECs in SWS from 1990 to 2023. The results indicate a substantial upward trajectory in the research literature pertaining to ECs in SWS. The study of ECs in SWS encompasses 78 disciplines, including Environmental Sciences, Environmental Engineering, and Water Resources. China, Spain, and the USA ranked among the top three countries in terms of both total publications and citation frequency. The majority of publications were published in reputable high-impact journals such as Science of the Total Environment, Chemosphere, and Bioresource Technology. Based on high-frequency keywords, co-occurrence networks of keywords, and keywords burst analysis, it is found that the occurrence and environment behavior of ECs in SWS (ARGs, microplastics, PPCPs, and POPs), the detection and analytical methods, the impact on SWS treatment and disposal processes, and the accumulation and ecological risks in plants and soil during SWS land utilization, are the main research directions and hot topics in this field. In the future, the study of the impact of SWS treatment technologies on ECs removal is expected to receive increased research attention.

Solid-phase adsorption methodologies of naturally occurring anthraquinones: A review

INTRODUCTION

Solid-phase extraction applied to plant matrices is nowadays a well-validated technique allowing to concentrate and purify different secondary metabolites. Several classes of phytochemicals have been selectively extracted by this methodology. During the last decade attention has been focused on biologically active anthraquinones from numerous sources like edible, healthy, and medicinal plants.

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this review is to provide a detailed literature survey of the solid-phase adsorption methodologies for the extraction of natural anthraquinones reported so far and to discuss and propose future directions in this field of research.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Substructure search was performed in the SciFinder Scholar, PubMed, Medline, and Scopus databases.

RESULTS

The first report about application of solid-phase adsorption for the purification of anthraquinones appeared in the literature in 2002. From this date, and in particular during recent years, the most notable examples included the use of chitin- and chitosan-based polymers, of molecularly imprinted polymers, of coated magnetic nanoparticles, of miniaturized matrix solid-phase dispersion, of functionalized resins, of differently structured lamellar solids, and finally of vortex-synchronized matrix solid-phase dispersion.

CONCLUSIONS

The herein detailed solid-phase adsorption methodologies are powerful tools to selectively extract natural anthraquinones and/or provide anthraquinone-enriched phytopreparations. Nevertheless, many other important methods have been applied to synthetic anthraquinones (e.g., azo dyes). These could be conveniently employed also for natural anthranoids. Studies in this field are discussed in this review article.

Distribution in marine fish and EDI estimation of contaminants of emerging concern by vortex-assisted matrix solid-phase dispersion and HPLC-MS/MS

Due to their persistence or continuous discharge, toxic substances are present in the aquatic environment, and can bioaccumulate and biomagnify in the food web, generating a significant ecological risk and a threat to human health. The present study assess the occurrence and tissue (muscle, liver, stomach and gills) distribution of 59 anthropogenic contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) in marine fish from Brazil. A simpler and faster analytical methodology based on vortex-assisted matrix solid-phase dispersion (VA-MSPD) and liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) was developed and validated. Limits of quantification ranged from 3.31 to 114 ng g^-1 dw with recovery rates between 60 and 140 % and relative standard deviation below 20 %. The ultraviolet filters 4-hydroxybenzophenone (4HB) (benzophenone-3 metabolite) and benzocaine (Et-PABA), and the antibacterial salicylic acid were frequently accumulated in muscle and liver at concentrations between 39.5 and 21.0 ngg^-1 dw. The determined concentrations resulted to be lower than the tolerable daily intake recommended by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA).

Targeted Multiresidue Method for the Analysis of Different Classes of Pesticides in Agro-Food Industrial Sludge by Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry

Sludge generated after washing of fruits and vegetables during agro-food processes is a complex matrix and selective methods for the identification and quantification of pesticides’ residues are necessary in order to achieve a sustainable and effective management of the total sewage. The present work describes the development and validation of a reliable, simple and fast analytical method based on liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) for the determination of 47 pesticides of different chemical classes, including organosphosphates, pyrethroids, neonicotinoids, triazoles and others, in sludge samples after QuEChERS sample preparation. The necessity of the individual steps of QuEChERS was investigated and the LC-ESI-MS/MS conditions were optimized to achieve maximum sensitivity of the target analytes. The method limits of detection (LODs) ranged between 0.0005 mg/kg (imidacloprid) and 0.05 mg/kg (beta cyfluthrin). The recoveries ranged between 71–120% and the repeatability of the method was ≤25% expressed as relative standard deviation. The method was applied to sludge samples generated after washing of fruits in an agro-fruit-packaging unit in Greece. The results showed the presence of 37 pesticides’ active substances with concentrations ranging from low ppbs, such as fludioxinil (5 μg/kg) up to low ppms such as beta cyfluthrin (3.5 mg/kg) and with their sum concentration reaching up to 19 mg/kg.

Surface nanodroplet-based nanoextraction from sub-milliliter volumes of dense suspensions

A greener analytical technique for quantifying compounds in dense suspensions is needed for wastewater and environmental analysis, chemical or bio-conversion process monitoring, biomedical diagnostics, and food quality control, among others. In this work, we introduce a green, fast, one-step method called nanoextraction for extraction and detection of target analytes from sub-milliliter dense suspensions using surface nanodroplets without toxic solvents and pre-removal of the solid contents. With nanoextraction, we achieve a limit of detection (LOD) of 10-9 M for a fluorescent model analyte obtained from a particle suspension sample. The LOD is lower than that in water without particles (10-8 M), potentially due to the interaction of particles and the analyte. The high particle concentration in the suspension sample, thus, does not reduce the extraction efficiency, although the extraction process was slowed down up to 5 min. As a proof of principle, we demonstrate the nanoextraction for the quantification of model compounds in wastewater slurry containing 30 wt% solids and oily components (i.e. heavy oils). The nanoextraction and detection technology developed in this work may be used in fast analytical technologies for complex slurry samples in the environment, industrial waste, or in biomedical diagnostics.

Rapid and cost-effective multiresidue analysis of pharmaceuticals, personal care products, and antifouling booster biocides in marine sediments using matrix solid phase dispersion

Currently, there are many contaminants of concern that need to be accurately determined to help assess their potential environmental hazard. Despite their increasing interest, yet few environmental occurrence data exist, likely because they are present at low levels and in very complex matrices. Therefore, multiresidue analytical methods for their determination need to be highly sensitive, selective, and robust. Particularly, due to the trace levels of these chemicals in the environment, an extensive extraction procedure is required before determination. This work details the development of a fast and cheap vortex-assisted matrix solid-phase dispersion-high performance liquid chromatography tandem-mass spectrometry (VA-MSPD-HPLC-MS/MS) method for multiresidue determination of 59 contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) including pharmaceuticals, personal care products, and booster biocides, in sediment. The validated method provided high sensitivity (0.42-36.8 ngg^-1 dw quantification limits), wide and good linearity (r² > 0.999), satisfactory accuracy (60-140%), and precision below 20% for most target analytes. In comparison with previous methods, relying on traditional techniques, the proposed method demonstrated to be more environmentally friendly, cheaper, simpler, and faster. The method was applied to monitor the occurrence of these compounds in sediments collected in Brazil, using only 2 g dw sediment samples, free-solid support, and 5 mL methanol as extraction solvent. The UV filter avobenzone, the UV stabilizer and antifreeze methylbenzotriazole, the preservative methylparaben, the fluoroquinolone antibiotic ciprofloxacin, and the biocides irgarol and 4,5-dichloro-2-octyl-4-isothiazolin-3-one were determined at concentrations in the range 1.44-69.7 ngg^-1 dw.

Cucurbituril and zwitterionic surfactant-based matrix solid-phase dispersion microextraction to simultaneously determine terpenoids from Radix Curcumae

A rapid, efficient, and environmentally friendly matrix solid-phase dispersion microextraction was established to determine and quantify terpenoids in Radix Curcumae using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography with a diode array detector. Various parameters affecting the extraction were investigated in detail, such as the grinding time, amount of adsorbent, type and concentration of elution solvent, and pH. The optimization of single-factor and response surface methodology was performed to confirm the best conditions in this procedure. The final optimized conditions were obtained by applying 70 mg of cucurbituril as adsorbent, 149 s as the optimum grinding time, and 228 mM of 3-(N,N-dimethylpalmitylammonio)propanesulfonate aqueous solution (pH 6.5) as the optimal elution solvent. The validated method showed a satisfactory linear range of 0.10-10 µg/mL for curdione and furanodiene, 0.01-10 µg/mL for isocurcumenol and germacrone, and 0.05-10 µg/mL for furanodienone, while the correlation coefficients ranged from 0.9945 to 0.9970. The recoveries of the investigated analytes at two spiked concentration levels (0.1 and 1.0 µg/mL) ranged from 96.53 to 104.60%. In addition, this method displayed acceptable reproducibility (relative standard deviation ≤ 3.66%). The results showed that the newly proposed matrix solid-phase dispersion microextraction method was successfully applied to analyze curdione, isocurcumenol, furanodienone, germacrone and furanodiene in Radix Curcumae samples.

Food Bioactive Compounds and Emerging Techniques for Their Extraction: Polyphenols as a Case Study

Experimental studies have provided convincing evidence that food bioactive compounds (FBCs) have a positive biological impact on human health, exerting protective effects against non-communicable diseases (NCD) including cancer and cardiovascular (CVDs), metabolic, and neurodegenerative disorders (NDDs). These benefits have been associated with the presence of secondary metabolites, namely polyphenols, glucosinolates, carotenoids, terpenoids, alkaloids, saponins, vitamins, and fibres, among others, derived from their antioxidant, antiatherogenic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antithrombotic, cardioprotective, and vasodilator properties. Polyphenols as one of the most abundant classes of bioactive compounds present in plant-based foods emerge as a promising approach for the development of efficacious preventive agents against NCDs with reduced side effects. The aim of this review is to present comprehensive and deep insights into the potential of polyphenols, from their chemical structure classification and biosynthesis to preventive effects on NCDs, namely cancer, CVDs, and NDDS. The challenge of polyphenols bioavailability and bioaccessibility will be explored in addition to useful industrial and environmental applications. Advanced and emerging extraction techniques will be highlighted and the high-resolution analytical techniques used for FBCs characterization, identification, and quantification will be considered.

Assessing the feasibility of sugarcane bagasse as an alternative solid support for chlorpyrifos determination in tomato

The feasibility of sugarcane bagasse to be employed as an alternative solid support for clean-up is presented during the development and validation of an analytical method to determine chlorpyrifos (O,O-diethyl O-3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridyl phosphorothioate) (CP) in tomato by HPLC-DAD. The efficiency of the method consisting of ultrasonic assisted extraction with acetonitrile and dispersion with salts, followed by dispersive phase extraction with powdered sugarcane bagasse is presented for three spiking levels relating to the established CP maximum residue limit (MRL) for industrial tomato in Brazil, 0.5 mg kg^-1 (½ MRL, MRL and 2 MRL). Satisfactory results were obtained in terms of trueness (recovery range: 76.5-120.1%), intermediate precision (1.0-5.2%) and repeatability (4.7-12.8%), expressed as relative standard deviation. The proposed method has a limit of quantification of 0.25 mg kg^-1 and could be deployed as cost effective routine analysis to monitor CP in tomato samples in processed food industries.

Balls-in-tube matrix solid phase dispersion (BiT-MSPD): An innovative and simplified technique for multiresidue determination of pesticides in fruit samples

Sample preparation of complex matrices, like food samples, continues to be a challenge demanding great effort for improvements. In this study, a new technique named balls-in-tube matrix solid-phase dispersion (BiT-MSPD) is proposed based on a simplification of the conventional MSPD technique being all sample preparation performed directly in a closed extraction tube with the assistance of steel balls. An innovative method using BiT-MSPD was successfully established for the determination of 133 pesticide residues in apple, peach, pear and plum by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS). Several sorbents were evaluated as solid support in different proportions with the sample. The homogenization step using mortar, glass rod or steel balls, with methanol and acetonitrile as extraction solvent, was evaluated. Vortex and ultrasound assisted extractions were also tested. Best results were obtained with C18, homogenization with steel balls, acetonitrile as solvent and ultrasound assisted extraction. Validation presented adequate trueness and precision results for the evaluated pesticides with recovery results ranging from 72 to 113% and RSD ≤ 17%. Practical limit of detection (LOD) and quantification (LOQ) for the compounds were 3 and 10 µg kg^-1, respectively. The developed method proved to be easier and faster to perform than the MSPD, considering that extraction and clean-up are performed in the same tube without the need to transfer to cartridges, recipients or to use a separate clean-up step. The proposed BiT-MSPD technique was successfully applied to fruit samples and has great potential to be applied in other matrices, like cereals and meat, since the steel balls promote an efficient sample dispersion and extraction of pesticides. The BiT-MSPD permit a fully automation of the entire sample preparation step.

Physicochemical Parameters of Real Wastewater Originating from a Plant Protection Products Factory and Modification of the QuEChERS Method for Determination of Captan

The aim of this study was the modification and application of the QuEChERS method for the preparation and purification of samples in order to determine the level of captan in real wastewater originating from a plant protection products factory which was characterized by a significant content of organic substances [Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) = 856 ± 128 mg O₂/L and Total Organic Carbon (TOC) = 62 ± 9 mg/L]. The optimization of the method consisted of the selection of solvents used for the extraction of captan from wastewater and also sorbents used to purify the extracts by the dispersion of a solid phase extraction technique (dSPE). Two steps were used: extraction and clean-up. In the extraction step, acetonitrile was replaced by anacetonitrile:acetone mixture. In the clean-up step by the dSPE, five sorbents were tested: Florisil^®, aluminum oxide (Al₂O₃), zirconium oxide (ZrO₂), silicon oxide (SiO₂) and PSA (primary and secondary amine). Concentrations of captan in wastewater extracts were determined by gas chromatography (GC) combined with electron capture detection (μECD). The best recovery parameters and precision of the method were obtained for samples purified using ZrO₂ (recovery 98% and precision expressed as relative standard deviation RSD 8%) and Florisil^® (recovery 96%, RSD 9%). Limits of detection (LOD) and quantification (LOQ) for determination of captan in diluted extract of wastewater were 0.003 and 0.01 mg/L, respectively. Matrix effects were in the range of −69% to −44% for samples purified by ZrO₂ and Florisil^®, respectively. The modified and optimized method was applied for fast and simple determination of captan levels in real industrial wastewater samples, in which the concentration of captan in diluted extract was determined to be 4.0 ± 0.3 mg/L.

New Vortex-Synchronized Matrix Solid-Phase Dispersion Method for Simultaneous Determination of Four Anthraquinones in Cassiae Semen

In this study, a green ionic-liquid based vortex-synchronized matrix solid-phase dispersion (VS-MSPD) combined with high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method was developed as a quantitative determination method for four anthraquinones in Cassiae Semen. Two conventional adsorbents, C₁₈ and silica gel were investigated. The strategy included two steps: Extraction and determination. Wasted crab shells were used as an alternative adsorbent and ionic liquid was used as an alternative solvent in the first step. Factors affecting extraction efficiency were optimized: A sample/adsorbent ratio of 2:1, a grinding time of 3 min, a vortex time of 3 min, and ionic liquid ([Domim]HSO₄, 250 mM) was used as eluent in the VS-MSPD procedure. As a result, the established method provided satisfactory linearity (R > 0.999), good accuracy and high reproducibility (RSD < 4.60%), and it exhibited the advantages of smaller sample amounts, shorter extraction time, less volume of elution solvent, and was much more environmental-friendly when compared with other conventional methods.

QuEChERS - Fundamentals, relevant improvements, applications and future trends

The Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged and Safe (QuEChERS) method is a simple and straightforward extraction technique involving an initial partitioning followed by an extract clean-up using dispersive solid-phase extraction (d-SPE). Originally, the QuEChERS approach was developed for recovering pesticide residues from fruits and vegetables, but rapidly gained popularity in the comprehensive isolation of analytes from different matrices. According to PubMed, since its development in 2003 up to November 2018, about 1360 papers have been published reporting QuEChERS as extraction method. Several papers have reported different improvements and modifications to the original QuEChERS protocol to ensure more efficient extractions of pH-dependent analytes and to minimize the degradation of labile analytes. This analytical approach shows several advantages over traditional extraction techniques, requiring low sample and solvent volumes, as well as less time for sample preparation. Furthermore, most of the published studies show that the QuEChERS protocol provides higher recovery rate and a better analytical performance than conventional extraction procedures. This review proposes an updated overview of the most recent developments and applications of QuEChERS beyond its original application to pesticides, mycotoxins, veterinary drugs and pharmaceuticals, forensic analysis, drugs of abuse and environmental contaminants. Their pros and cons will be discussed, considering the factors influencing the extraction efficiency. Whenever possible, the performance of the QuEChERS is compared to other extraction approaches. In addition to the evolution of this technique, changes and improvements to the original method are discussed.

Sample as solid support in MSPD: A new possibility for determination of pharmaceuticals, personal care and degradation products in sewage sludge

A method based on matrix-solid phase dispersion (MSPD), focused on the principles of green analytical chemistry, aimed at the use of alternative solid supports and less toxic solvents, was developed for the simultaneous determination of 19 pharmaceuticals, 4 personal care products (PPCPs) and 4 degradation products in sewage sludge samples. Higher recoveries were achieved when 2 g sample was macerated for 5 min in a glass mortar, transferred to a centrifuge tube, and 1 min vortex agitation with 5 mL methanol. The performance of the method was evaluated through linearity, recovery, precision (intra-day), method detection and quantification limits (MDL and MQL) and matrix effect. The calibration curves prepared in methanol and in the matrix extract showed a correlation coefficient ranging from 0.98 to 0.99. MQL values ranged from 1.25 to 1250 ng g^-1. Recoveries between 50 and 120% were reached with RSDs lower than 20% for most compounds. The method presented low and medium matrix effects for most analytes. This method was successfully applied to real samples and of the 27 compounds determined, amitriptyline, carbamazepine, diclofenac, haloperidol, ketoconazole, miconazole, albendazole, mebendazole, thiabendazole, triclosan and triclocarban were detected in concentrations between 2.5 and 5400 ng g^-1.

A Review on the Recent Progress in Matrix Solid Phase Dispersion

Matrix solid phase dispersion (MSPD) has proven to be an efficient sample preparation method for solid, semi-solid, and viscous samples. Applications of MSPD have covered biological, food, and environmental samples, including both organic and inorganic analytes. This review presents an update on the development of MSPD in the period 2015~June 2018. In the first part of this review, we focus on the latest development in MSPD sorbent, including molecularly imprinted polymers, and carbon-based nanomaterials etc. The second part presents the miniaturization of MSPD, discussing the progress in both micro-MSPD and mini-MSPD. The on-line/in-line techniques for improving the automation and sample throughput are also discussed. The final part summarizes the success in the modification of original MSPD procedures.

Mercury contamination in the sludge of drinking water treatment plants dumping into a reservoir in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Although sludge piles from drinking water treatment plants can contain harmful substances, in many countries, their disposal methods are still unregulated. Besides aluminum, which is a major constituent in these residues, many other contaminants-like trace metals-can be present and may result from the quality of the raw materials used for water treatment. The application of these chemicals for the treatment of drinking water can generate toxic sludge and contaminate the produced water. In the present work, mercury contamination in the sludge piles of two drinking water treatment plants located along the margins of the Juturnaíba Reservoir, Southeast Brazil, was evaluated to verify whether contaminants are incorporated during water treatment. In the summer 2012, five cores were collected from the piles, and were analyzed for Eh, granulometry, total carbon, total nitrogen, and total mercury. The results indicated an anoxic environment, reflecting composition of the suspended matter. Carbon and nitrogen presented elevated concentrations, but also seemed to reproduce the characteristics of the suspended matter in the raw water. The concentrations of mercury were extremely variable but presented unexpectedly high values in some of the layers, reaching 18,484 ng g^-1. On the other hand, concentrations ten times lower than those observed in the natural system (8 ng g^-1) could be observed. It was concluded that the only possible source for the contamination of the sludge was the chemicals used for water treatment.