Determination of perchlorate in drinking water by ion chromatography using macrocycle-based concentration and separation methods

Plasmonic surface-enhanced Raman scattering nano-substrates for detection of anionic environmental contaminants: Current progress and future perspectives

Surface-enhanced Raman scattering spectroscopy (SERS) is a powerful technique of vibrational spectroscopy based on the inelastic scattering of incident photons by molecular species. It has unique properties such as ultra-sensitivity, selectivity, non-destructivity, speed, and fingerprinting properties for analytical and sensing applications. This enables SERS to be widely used in real-world sample analysis and basic plasmonic mechanistic studies. However, the desirable properties of SERS are compromised by the high cost and low reproducibility of the signals. The development of multifunctional, stable and reusable nano-engineered SERS substrates is a viable solution to circumvent these drawbacks. Recently, plasmonic SERS active nano-substrates with various morphologies have attracted the attention of researchers due to promising properties such as the formation of dense hot spots, additional stability, tunable and controlled morphology, and surface functionalization. This comprehensive review focused on the current advances in the field of SERS active nanosubstrates suitable for the detection and quantification of anionic environmental pollutants. The common fabrication methods, including the techniques for morphological adjustments and surface modification, substrate categories, and the design of nanotechnologically fabricated plasmonic SERS substrates for anion detection are systematically presented. Here, the need for the design, synthesis, and functionalization of SERS nano-substrates for anions of great environmental importance is explained in detail. In addition, the broad categories of SERS nano-substrates, namely colloid-based SERS substrates and solid-support SERS substrates are discussed. Moreover, a brief discussion of SERS detection of certain anionic pollutants in the environment is presented. Finally, the prospects in the fabrication and commercialization of pilot-scale handheld SERS sensors and the construction of smart nanosubstrates integrated with novel amplifying materials for the detection of anions of environmental and health concern are proposed.

Perchlorate Solid-Contact Ion-Selective Electrode Based on Dodecabenzylbambus[6]uril

Dodecabenzylbambus[6]uril (Bn12BU[6]) is an anion receptor that binds the perchlorate ion the most tightly (stability constant ~1010 M−1) of all anions due to the excellent match between the ion size in relation to the receptor cavity. This new bambusuril compound was used as an ionophore in the ion-selective membrane (ISM) to develop ion selective electrodes (ISEs) for determination of perchlorate concentration utilizing the poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT) polymer film as a solid-contact material. Variation of the content of Bn12BU[6] and tridodecylmethylammonium chloride (TDMACl) in the plasticized poly(vinyl chloride)-based ISM was also tested. All the prepared solid-contact ISEs and their analytical performance were characterized by potentiometry, cyclic voltammetry (CV), electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and chronopotentiometry. The ISEs showed rapid response and a sub-Nernstian slope (~57 mV/decade) during potentiometric measurements in perchlorate solutions in the concentration range from 10−1 to 10−6 M simultaneously with their high stability and sufficient selectivity to other common inorganic anions like bromide, chloride, nitrate and sulphate. The function of the ISE was further verified by analysis of real water samples (lake, sea, and mineral water), which gave accurate and precise results.

Perchlorate occurrence in foodstuffs and water: Analytical methods and techniques for removal from water - A review

Perchlorate (ClO₄^-), a type of contaminant with high diffusivity and durability, has been widely detected in water and foodstuffs, arousing a global concern. It can interfere with normal function of the human thyroid gland, affecting human health. Therefore, determination of perchlorate in water and foodstuffs, and removal from water are important. This review focuses on the occurrence of perchlorate, mainly in water and foodstuffs, and provides an overview of analytical methods for determination of perchlorate over the last two decades. In addition, merits and drawbacks of the various methods have been considered. This review also highlights the most commonly used approaches for removal of perchlorate from water. Finally, current trends and future perspectives in determination of perchlorate and removal from water are proposed. This review provided a comprehensive understanding of perchlorate occurrence and its removal from water, and had practical significance in reducing the harm of perchlorate to human.

Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes (SWCNTs) as Solid-Contact in All-Solid-State Perchlorate ISEs: Applications to Fireworks and Propellants Analysis

Herein, we present reliable, robust, stable, and cost-effective solid-contact ion-selective electrodes (ISEs) for perchlorate determination. Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) were used as solid-contact material and indium (III) 5, 10, 15, 20-(tetraphenyl) porphyrin chloride (In^III-porph) as an ion carrier. The sensor exhibited an improved sensitivity towards ClO₄⁻ ions with anionic slope of −56.0 ± 1.1 (R² = 0.9998) mV/decade over a linear range 1.07 × 10⁻⁶ – 1.0 × 10⁻² M and detection limit of 1.8 × 10⁻⁷ M. The short-term potential stability and the double-layer capacitance were measured by chronopotentiometric and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) measurements, respectively. The sensor is used for ClO₄⁻ determination in fireworks and propellant powders. The results fairly agree with data obtained by ion chromatography.

A review of perchlorate (ClO4-) occurrence in fruits and vegetables

Since the 1990s, a large number of studies around the world have reported the presence of perchlorate in different types of environmental matrices. In view of their inherent characteristics, such as high solubility, mobility, persistence, and low affinity for the surface of soil, perchlorates are mobilized through the water-soil system and accumulate in edible plant species of high human consumption. However, the ingestion of food products containing perchlorate represents a potential health risk to people due to their adverse effects on thyroid, hormone, and neuronal development, mainly in infants and fetuses. At present, research has been centered on determining sources, fates, and remediation methods and not on its real extension in vegetables under farming conditions. This review presents a comprehensive overview and update of the frequent detection of perchlorate in fruits and vegetables produced and marketed around the world. Additionally, the impact of fertilizer on the potential addition of perchlorate to soil and its mobility in the water-soil-plant system is discussed. This review is organized into the following sections: sources of perchlorate, mobility in the water-soil system, presence in fruits and vegetables in different countries, international regulations, and toxicological studies. Finally, recommendations for future studies concerning perchlorate in fruits and vegetables are presented.

A new approach for trace analysis of guanidine compounds in surface water with resorcinarene-based ion chromatography columns

Trace levels of pharmaceuticals have been detected in surface water and may pose a health risk to humans and other organisms. New chromatographic materials will help identify and quantify these contaminants. We introduce a new ion chromatographic (IC) material designed to separate cationic pharmaceuticals and report its ability to separate a group of guanidine compounds. Guanidine moieties are strongly basic and protonated under acid conditions, and therefore can potentially be separated on the newly designed stationary phase and detected by ion exchange chromatography. The new column packing material is based on glutamic acids bonded to resorcinarene moieties that in turn are bound to divinylbenzene macroporous resin. Detection limits in the range of 5-30 μg L(-1) were achieved using integrated pulsed amperometric detection (IPAD) for guanidine (G), methylguanidine (MG), 1,1-dimethylbiguanide (DMG), agmatine (AGM), guanidinobenzoic acid (GBA) and cimetidine (CIM). Suppressed conductivity (CD) and UV-vis detection resulted in limits of detection similar to IPAD, in the range of 2-66 μg L(-1), but were not able to detect all of the analytes. Three water sources, river, lake, and marsh, were analyzed and despite matrix effects, sensitivity for guanidine compounds was in the 100 μg L(-1) range and apparent recoveries were 80-96%. The peak area precision was 0.01-2.89% for IPAD, CD and UV-vis detection.

Capture and accumulation of perchlorate in lettuce. Effect of genotype, temperature, perchlorate concentration, and competition with anions

Various studies have evaluated the accumulation of ClO4(-) in lettuce (Lactuca sativa), but very few have dealt with the variables that can interfere with its capture. The present study evaluates the transfer of ClO4(-) in two L. sativa varieties: butter head (L. sativa var. capitata) and cos lettuce (L. sativa var. crispa) under hydroponic conditions. The ClO4(-) concentrations used correspond to levels (1 and 2mgL(-1)), measured in irrigation water in the Iquique region in the north of Chile. Results indicate that the capture of ClO4(-) is dependent on its concentration, lettuce genotype, and temperature. The butter head variety accumulates the highest perchlorate concentrations. Anion competition involving NO3(-) (16 and 48mM), Cl(-) (23 and 56mM), and SO4(2-) (10 and 20mM) was evaluated, being NO3(-) (48mM), the most significant competition reducing the concentration of ClO4(-) in tissues of L. sativa varieties.

Novel miniaturized sensors for potentiometric batch and flow-injection analysis (FIA) of perchlorate in fireworks and propellants

Three planar miniaturized perchlorate membrane sensors (3×5 mm(2)) are prepared using a flexible Kaptan substrate coated with nitron-perchlorate (NT-ClO4) [sensor 1], methylene blue-perchlorate (MB-ClO4) [sensor II] and indium-porphyrin (In-Por) [sensor III] as electroactive materials in PVC membranes plasticized with 2-NPPE. Sensors I, II and III display near-Nernstian response for 1.0×10(-5)-1.0×10(-2), 3.1×10(-5)-1.0×10(-2) and 3.1×10(-6)-1.0×10(-2) mol L(-1) ClO4(-) with lower detection limits of 6.1×10(-6), 6.9×10(-6) and 1.2×10(-6) mol L(-1), and anionic calibration slopes of 50.9±0.4, 48.4±0.4 and 57.7±0.3 mV decade(-1), respectively. Methods for determining perchlorate using these sensors offer many attractive advantages including simplicity, flexibility, cost effectiveness, wide linear dynamic response range (0.1-1000 ppm), low detection limit (<1.2×10(-6) mol L(-1)≡0.1 ppm), small sample test volume (100 μL), safety, short response time (<20 s), long life span (~8 weeks), and extended wide working pH range (4.5-8.0). The sensors show high selectivity in the presence of some inorganic ions (e.g., PO4(3-), SO4(2-), S2O3(2-), NO2(-), NO3(-), N3(-), CN(-), Cl(-), Br(-), I(-)) and automation feasibility. Indium-porphyrin based membrane sensor (sensor III) is used as a detector in a wall-jet flow injection set-up to enable accurate flow injection analysis (FIA) of perchlorate in some fireworks without interferences from the associated reducing agents (sulfur and charcoal), binders (dextrin, lactose), coloring agents (calcium, strontium, copper, iron, sodium), color brighten (linseed oil) and regulators (aluminum flakes) which are commonly used in the formulations. The sensor is also used for perchlorate assessment in some propellant powders. The results fairly agree with data obtained by ion-chromatography.

Perchlorate levels in soil and waters from the Atacama Desert

Perchlorate is an anion that originates as a contaminant in ground and surface waters. The presence of perchlorate in soil and water samples from northern Chile (Atacama Desert) was investigated by ion chromatography-electrospray mass spectrometry. Results indicated that perchlorate was found in five of seven soils (cultivated and uncultivated) ranging from 290 ± 1 to 2,565 ± 2 μg/kg. The greatest concentration of perchlorate was detected in Humberstone soil (2,565 ± 2 μg/kg) associated with nitrate deposits. Perchlorate levels in Chilean soils are greater than those reported for uncultivated soils in the United States. Perchlorate was also found in superficial running water ranging from 744 ± 0.01 to 1,480 ± 0.02 μg/L. Perchlorate water concentration is 30-60 times greater than levels established by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (24.5 μg/L) for drinking.

Effect of suppressor current intensity on the determination of glyphosate and aminomethylphosphonic acid by suppressed conductivity ion chromatography

This paper presents the application of ion chromatography with electrolytic eluent generation and mobile phase suppression for the direct conductimetric detection of glyphosate and its degradation product aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA). The compounds were separated on a Dionex AS18 anion exchange column with a 12-40 mM KOH step gradient from 9 to 9.5 min. The effect of the suppressor current intensity on the electrostatic interaction of these amphoteric compounds with the suppressor cation exchange membranes was evaluated. A suppressor current gradient technique was proposed for the limitation of peak broadening and baseline noise, in order to improve method sensitivity and detectability. It was observed that residual sample carbonates co-eluted with AMPA when a large injection loop was installed for the low level determination of both compounds in natural waters. For this reason, glyphosate was isocratically eluted using 33 mM KOH in order to decrease analysis time within 10 min and a column clean up step using 100 mM KOH was used to ensure retention time reproducibility. The developed method was applied to the analysis of drinking and natural water and it was further successfully applied to orange samples with slight modifications. Instrumental LOD for glyphosate was 0.24 microg/L, while method LOD was 0.54 microg/L for spring waters and 0.01 mg/kg for oranges using a 1000 microL direct loop injection of the sample. Intra-day and inter-day precision (as %RSD) for water samples was 4.6% and 12% at a spiking level of 2 microg/L, and the recovery ranged from 64% to 88% depending on sample conductivity. For orange samples, the inter-day precision was 1.4% at a spiking level of 4.4 mg/kg, while overall recovery was 103%. The developed method is direct, fast, sensitive and relatively inexpensive, and could be used as an ideal fast screening tool for the monitoring of glyphosate residues in water and fruit samples.

Analysis of thyreostats: a history of 35 years

Thyreostatic drugs (TS), illegally administrated to livestock for fattening purposes, are banned in the European Union since 1981 (Council Directive 81/602/EC). This paper reviews the trends in the analytical approaches for the determination of TS drugs in biological matrices. After a brief introduction on the different groups of compounds with a thyreostatic action, the most relevant legislation regarding the residue control of these compounds is presented. An overview of the analytical possibilities for the determination of TS in animal matrices, covering sample extraction, purification, separation techniques and detection methods is provided. Additionally, a brief outline of animal experiments is described that illustrates the excretion and distribution profiles of TS residues. Finally, the novel developments in TS analysis are highlighted. Also the possible semi-endogenous status of thiouracil is discussed.