Determination of biogenic amines in wines by pre-column derivatization and high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry

Analytical strategies for the determination of biogenic amines in dairy products

Biogenic amines (BA) are mainly produced by the decarboxylation of amino acids by enzymes from microorganisms that emerge during food fermentation or due to incorrectly applied preservation processes. The presence of these compounds in food can lead to a series of negative effects on human health. To prevent the ingestion of high amounts of BA, their concentration in certain foods needs to be controlled. Although maximum legal levels have not yet been established for dairy products, potential adverse effects have given rise to a substantial number of analytical and microbiological studies: they report concentrations ranging from a few mg/kg to several g/kg. This article provides an overview of the analytical methods for the determination of biogenic amines in dairy products, with particular focus on the most recent and/or most promising advances in this field. We not only provide a summary of analytical techniques but also list the required sample pretreatments. Since high performance liquid chromatography with derivatization is the most widely used method, we describe it in greater detail, including a comparison of derivatizing agents. Further alternative techniques for the determination of BA are likewise described. The use of biosensors for BA in dairy products is emerging, and current results are promising; this paper thus also features a section on the subject. This review can serve as a helpful guideline for choosing the best option to determine BA in dairy products, especially for beginners in the field.

Effectively Selecting Aptamers for Targeting Aromatic Biogenic Amines and Their Application in Aptasensing Establishment

It is necessary to detect the biogenic amine (BA) content in food due to their toxicological effects and their role as an index of freshness for protein-rich foods. Aptamer-based techniques have the potential to provide alternative methods for sensitive and efficient monitoring of BAs. Herein, we described the selection and characterization of DNA aptamers for tyramine (TYR) and β-phenethylamine (PHE) using a one-pot coupled with separate selection strategy. During the selection process, melting curve analysis was developed to monitor the enrichment of the aptamer species, and a saturation of the selection was found at the 14th round. Based on the fluorescence assay, aptamers TYR-2 and PHE-2 showed high affinity to TYR and PHE with the dissociation constant values of 64.28 ± 10.4 and 71.64 ± 11.47 nM, respectively. The circular dichromatic and molecular docking technologies were employed for the preliminary binding mechanism analysis. The obtained aptamers TYR-2 and PHE-2 were used in a fluorescence method for the TYR and PHE determination with limits of detection of 0.34 and 0.39 ng/mL, respectively. In addition, the developed aptasensor was further applied to the TYR and PHE detection in pork and beer samples, and the recovery rate was between 95.6 and 104.2%. It was demonstrated that the selected aptamers had enormous potential as a molecular probe for the identification and determination of BAs.

Characterization of the first vaginal Lactobacillus crispatus genomes isolated in Brazil

BACKGROUND

Lactobacillus crispatus is the dominant species in the vaginal microbiota associated with health and considered a homeostasis biomarker. Interestingly, some strains are even used as probiotics. However, the genetic mechanisms of L. crispatus involved in the control of the vaginal microbiome and protection against bacterial vaginosis (BV) are not entirely known. To further investigate these mechanisms, we sequenced and characterized the first four L. crispatus genomes from vaginal samples from Brazilian women and used genome-wide association study (GWAS) and comparative analyses to identify genetic mechanisms involved in healthy or BV conditions and selective pressures acting in the vaginal microbiome.

METHODS

The four genomes were sequenced, assembled using ten different strategies and automatically annotated. The functional characterization was performed by bioinformatics tools comparing with known probiotic strains. Moreover, it was selected one representative strain (L. crispatus CRI4) for in vitro detection of phages by electron microscopy. Evolutionary analysis, including phylogeny, GWAS and positive selection were performed using 46 public genomes strains representing health and BV conditions.

RESULTS

Genes involved in probiotic effects such as lactic acid production, hydrogen peroxide, bacteriocins, and adhesin were identified. Three hemolysins and putrescine production were predicted, although these features are also present in other probiotic strains. The four genomes presented no plasmids, but 14 known families insertion sequences and several prophages were detected. However, none of the mobile genetic elements contained antimicrobial resistance genes. The genomes harbor a CRISPR-Cas subtype II-A system that is probably inactivated due to fragmentation of the genes csn2 and cas9. No genomic feature was associated with a health condition, perhaps due to its multifactorial characteristic. Five genes were identified as under positive selection, but the selective pressure remains to be discovered. In conclusion, the Brazilian strains investigated in this study present potential protective properties, although in vitro and in vivo studies are required to confirm their efficacy and safety to be considered for human use.

Chemical labeling strategies for small molecule natural product detection and isolation

Covering: Up to 2020.It is widely accepted that small molecule natural products (NPs) evolved to carry out a particular ecological function and that these finely-tuned molecules can sometimes be appropriated for the treatment of disease in humans. Unfortunately, for the natural products chemist, NPs did not evolve to possess favorable physicochemical properties needed for HPLC-MS analysis. The process known as derivatization, whereby an NP in a complex mixture is decorated with a nonnatural moiety using a derivatizing agent (DA), arose from this sad state of affairs. Here, NPs are freed from the limitations of natural functionality and endowed, usually with some degree of chemoselectivity, with additional structural features that make HPLC-MS analysis more informative. DAs that selectively label amines, carboxylic acids, alcohols, phenols, thiols, ketones, and aldehydes, terminal alkynes, electrophiles, conjugated alkenes, and isocyanides have been developed and will be discussed here in detail. Although usually employed for targeted metabolomics, chemical labeling strategies have been effectively applied to uncharacterized NP extracts and may play an increasing role in the detection and isolation of certain classes of NPs in the future.

Study on the shift of ultraviolet spectra in aqueous solution with variations of the solution concentration

In this study, we mainly focused on predictable regularities of the red shift of ultraviolet spectra for β-phenylethylamine (PEA), NaCl and NaOH in aqueous solution. The absorption peaks of the UV spectra near 191 nm of NaCl, NaOH and PEA in aqueous solution moved in the direction of a red shift while the molar absorption coefficient at the peak increased regularly with the increasing solution concentration. These shifts were obtained for solutions with concentrations ranging from 3.68 to 1000 mmol/L for NaCl, from 0.762 to 2000 mmol/L for NaOH, and from 0.0515 to 8.91 mmol/L for PEA. The plots of the logarithm of the solution concentration for NaCl and PEA versus the absorbance at 191 nm and at the peak were linear, and the plots of the logarithm of the solution concentration for NaCl and PEA versus the wavelength at the peak (shifted from 191 nm) were also linear. In addition, the plots of the logarithm of the solution concentration for NaOH that ranged from 0.762 to 1.96 mmol/L versus the absorbance at 191 nm and at the peak were linear as well as the plots of the logarithm of the solution concentration for NaOH that ranged from 1.96 to 2000 mmol/L versus the wavelength at the peak. The slopes of the absorbance at 191 nm of PEA, NaCl and NaOH were somewhat similar to the absorbance at the peak separately, whereas the slopes of the wavelengths at the peak were different from them. Finally, in order to obtain the predictable regularity of the red shift of the UV spectrum for the mixture, 22 ternary mixtures were prepared. The results indicate that the inhibiting effect of hydroxide ions (OH-) caused the wavelength near 206 nm to remain unchanged when the solution concentration of NaOH in the mixture was more than 0.762 mmol/L.

Recent Trends in the Analysis of Chemical Contaminants in Beverages

Chemical contaminants should not be present in beverages for human consumption, but could eventually be ingested by consumers as they may appear naturally from the environment or be produced by anthropogenic sources. These contaminants could belong to many different chemical sources, including heavy metals, amines, bisphenols, phthalates, pesticides, perfluorinated compounds, inks, ethyl carbamate, and others. It is well known that these hazardous chemicals in beverages can represent a severe threat by the potential risk of generating diseases to humans if no strict quality control is applied during beverages processing. This review compiles the most updated knowledge of the presence of potential contaminants in various types of beverages (both alcoholic and non-alcoholic), as well as in their containers, to prevent undesired migration. Special attention is given to the extraction and pre-concentration techniques applied to these samples, as well as to the analytical techniques necessary for the determination of chemicals with a potential contaminant effect. Finally, an overview of the current legislation is carried out, as well as future trends of research in this field.

Fully automated process for histamine detection based on magnetic separation and fluorescence detection

To ensure food safety and to prevent unnecessary foodborne complications this study reports fast, fully automated process for histamine determination. This method is based on magnetic separation of histamine with magnetic particles and quantification by the fluorescence intensity change of MSA modified CdSe Quantum dots. Formation of Fe₂O₃ particles was followed by adsorption of TiO₂ on their surface. Magnetism of developed probe enabled rapid histamine isolation prior to its fluorescence detection. Quantum dots (QDs) of approx. 3 nm were prepared via facile UV irradiation. The fluorescence intensity of CdSe QDs was enhanced upon mixing with magnetically separated histamine, in concentration-dependent manner, with a detection limit of 1.6 μM. The linear calibration curve ranged between 0.07 and 4.5 mM histamine with a low LOD and LOQ of 1.6 μM and 6 μM. The detection efficiency of the method was confirmed by ion exchange chromatography. Moreover, the specificity of the sensor was evaluated and no cross-reactivity from nontarget analytes was observed. This method was successfully applied for the direct analysis of histamine in white wine providing detection limit much lower than the histamine maximum levels established by EU regulation in food samples. The recovery rate was excellent, ranging from 84 to 100% with an RSD of less than 4.0%. The main advantage of the proposed method is full automation of the analytical procedure that reduces the time and cost of the analysis, solvent consumption and sample manipulation, enabling routine analysis of large numbers of samples for histamine and highly accurate and precise results.

Simultaneous quantification of five biogenic amines based on LC-MS/MS and its application in honeybee venom from different subspecies

The use of honeybee venom in traditional medicine is increasing due to its unexpected beneficial effects in the treatment of diseases. In this study, a simple and environmentally friendly sample preparation procedure was developed to quantify five biogenic amines-histamine, 5-hydroxytryptamine, dopamine, adrenaline, and noradrenaline-in honeybee venom using high-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. The instrument and sample preparation method were optimized to achieve stable, sensitive, and accurate quantification of the five biogenic amines. The peak purities of five biogenic amines in bee venom were examined using a diode array detector to ensure that endogenous impurities will not interfere with biogenic amines during the chromatographic separation procedure. The correlation coefficient of each compound was higher than 0.998 in the range of 0.5-1000 ng/mL. The limits of detection and quantification of the developed method ranged between 0.09 and 0.17, and 0.3 and 0.59 μg/g, respectively. The average recoveries of spiked biogenic amines with different concentrations were higher than 70.95%, and the intra- and intermediate-day precisions were lower than 7.51% and 10.17%, respectively. The carry-over between each injection and the stability of the target analytes were also evaluated to ensure the effectiveness of this method. The data obtained are presented in various formats, including boxplot, heat map, and principal component analysis diagram, to visualize the differences in the biogenic amine contents of the honeybee venoms from different subspecies. This method hopes to provide the opportunity to distinguish the bee venom produced by different subspecies.

Magnetic immunochromatographic test for histamine detection in wine

Histamine, a biogenic amine, is abundant in fermented foods and beverages, notably wine. A high intake of this monoamine may produce adverse reactions in humans, which may be severe in individuals with a reduced capacity to catabolise extrinsic histamine. Thus, control of histamine concentration during wine production and before distribution is advisable. Simple, rapid, point-of-use bioanalytical platforms are needed because traditional methods for the detection and quantification of histamine are expensive and time-consuming. This work applies the lateral flow immunoassay technique to histamine detection. Superparamagnetic particle labels, and an inductive sensor designed to read the test line in the immunoassay, enable magnetic quantification of the molecule. The system is calibrated with histamine standards in the interval of interest for wine production. A commercial optical strip reader is used for comparison measurements. The lateral flow system has a limit of detection of 1.2 and 1.5 mg/L for the inductive and optical readers, respectively. The capability of the inductive system for histamine quantification is demonstrated for wine samples at different processing points (at the end of alcoholic fermentation, at the end of malolactic fermentation, in freshly bottled wine, and in reserve wine). The results are validated by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography. Graphical abstract.

Azo coupling-based derivatization method for high-sensitivity liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis of tetrahydrocannabinol and other aromatic compounds

An azo coupling-based derivatization method is reported for high-sensitivity liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) quantitation of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and other aromatic compounds, i.e. phenols and amines. Through the azo coupling of a diazonium to an analyte, it produces a derivatized analyte which has enhanced ionization efficiency and results in high-response fragments in tandem mass spectrometry. The derivatization method was applied to six typical aromatic compounds using three different diazonium salts as derivatization reagents, demonstrating its applicability to a variety of analytes and reagents. The derivatization reaction can be directly carried out in neat samples, and after derivatization the samples can be immediately sent to the LC-MS/MS instrument for analysis. These advantages facilitate a one-step sample preparation procedure that can be completed in less than one hour, allowing for a "derivatize & shoot" lab workflow. The derivatization method was applied to establish an LC-MS/MS assay for the quantitation of THC in human breath samples. The derivatization conditions were studied in this application, including the effects of acidity, organic solvent, and diazonium concentration in the reaction. The THC derivatization assay was validated and achieved a limit of quantitation (LOQ) of 0.50 pg/ml using either of the two regio-isomers of the azo-derivative of THC (THC-DRV). To prove that the derivatization method has compatibility with complex-matrix samples, a THC derivatization assay for serum samples was established, in which the azo coupling reaction was directly carried out in crude protein-precipitated supernatants. An LOQ of 5.0 pg/ml was achieved. In addition, excellent correlation between THC derivatization and non-derivatization assays was found in the analysis of whole blood samples.

Liquid Chromatography-Single-Quadrupole Mass Spectrometry as a Responsive Tool for Determination of Biogenic Amines in Ready-to-Eat Baby Foods

Baby food has never been the object of biogenic amine profiling. The aim of this study was to develop a highly sensitive method for analysis of biogenic amines in ready-to-eat baby foods. The principle of the developed method involves high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to single-quadrupole mass spectrometry (HPLC-APCI-MS) of dansyl derivatives, presented also in comparison with common diode array and fluorescence detection systems. The confirmation of correct identification of derivatives was performed by in-source fragmentation of the product ion at 170 m/z, performed only in one MS analyzer. The method was used to identify the amine profile and quantify the putrescine, cadaverine, histamine, tyramine, spermidine, and spermine content in 68 ready-to-eat baby foods. The limits of detection and quantification were in the range of 0.07-1.67 and 0.2-5.0 ng mL^- 1. The method enabled quantification of amines at ng/g level in almost all analyzed samples, without any preconcentration step. Amine recoveries of 86.0-105.2% were obtained with RSD ≤ 9.7%. The developed method could be used for quantification of the most frequently occurring BAs in foods including vegetables, fish, meat, or fruit at previously undetectable concentration levels, making the method multimatrix applicable and highly-sensitive.

Lactobacillus rossiae strain isolated from sourdough produces putrescine from arginine

This work reports a Lactobacillus rossiae strain (L. rossiae D87) isolated from sourdough that synthesizes putrescine - a biogenic amine that raises food safety and spoilage concerns - from arginine via the ornithine decarboxylase (ODC) pathway. The odc and potE genes were identified and sequenced. These genes respectively encode ornithine decarboxylase (Odc), which participates in the decarboxylation of ornithine to putrescine, and the ornithine/putrescine exchanger (PotE), which exchanges ornithine for putrescine. Transcriptional analysis showed that odc and potE form an operon that is regulated transcriptionally by ornithine in a dose-dependent manner. To explore the possible role of the ODC pathway as an acid stress resistance mechanism for this bacterium, the effect of acidic pHs on its transcriptional regulation and on putrescine biosynthesis was analysed. Acidic pHs induced the transcription of the odc-potE genes and the production of putrescine over that seen at neutral pH. Further, putrescine production via the ODC system improved the survival of L. rossiae D87 by counteracting the acidification of the cytoplasm when the cells were subjected to acidic conditions. These results suggest the ODC pathway of L. rossiae D87 provides a biochemical defence mechanism against acidic environments.

Accumulation of Biogenic Amines in Wine: Role of Alcoholic and Malolactic Fermentation

Biogenic amines (BAs) are detrimental to health and originate in foods mainly from decarboxylation of the corresponding amino acid by the activity of exogenous enzymes released by various microorganisms. BAs can be generated at different stages of the wine production. Some of them are formed in the vineyard and are normal constituents of grapes with amounts varying with variety, soil type and composition, fertilization and climatic conditions during growth and degree of maturation. BAs can be also formed by the yeasts during the alcoholic fermentation (AF), as well as by the action of bacteria involved in the malolactic fermentation (MLF). As aminogenesis is a complex and multifactorial phenomenon, the studies carried out to identify the main vinification stage of BAs production yielded contradictory results. In particular, there is not a general consensus yet on which fermentation supports mostly the accumulation of BAs in wine. In this context, the aim of the present paper deals with the most recent results related with the influence of alcoholic and malolactic fermentation parameters on BAs-producer microorganism in wine.

Analytical Methods for the Quantification of Histamine and Histamine Metabolites

The endogenous metabolite histamine (HA) is synthesized in various mammalian cells but can also be ingested from exogenous sources. It is involved in a plethora of physiological and pathophysiological processes. So far, four different HA receptors (H₁R-H₄R) have been described and numerous HAR antagonists have been developed. Contemporary investigations regarding the various roles of HA and its main metabolites have been hampered by the lack of highly specific and sensitive analytic methods for all of these analytes. Liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) is the method of choice for identification and sensitive quantification of many low-molecular weight endogenous metabolites. In this chapter, different methodological aspects of HA quantification as well as recommendations for LC-MS/MS methods suitable for analysis of HA and its main metabolites are summarized.

Simultaneous Determination of Food-Related Biogenic Amines and Precursor Amino Acids Using in Situ Derivatization Ultrasound-Assisted Dispersive Liquid-Liquid Microextraction by Ultra-High-Performance Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry

A simple, rapid, sensitive, selective, and environmentally friendly method, based on in situ derivatization ultrasound-assisted dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (in situ DUADLLME) coupled with ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) using multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode has been developed for the simultaneous determination of food-related biogenic amines and amino acids. A new mass-spectrometry-sensitive derivatization reagent 4'-carbonyl chloride rosamine (CCR) was designed, synthesized, and first reported. Parameters and conditions of in situ DUADLLME and UHPLC-MS/MS were optimized in detail. Under the optimized conditions, the in situ DUADLLME was completed speedily (within 1 min) with high derivatization efficiencies (≥98.5%). With the cleanup and concentration of microextraction step, good analytical performance was obtained for the analytes. The results showed that this method was accurate and practical for quantification of biogenic amines and amino acids in common food samples (red wine, beer, wine, cheese, sausage, and fish).

Low-temperature derivatization followed by vortex-assisted liquid-liquid microextraction for the analysis of polyamines in Nicotiana Tabacum

Polyamines are ubiquitous polycationic molecules that play a key role in many biological processes such as nucleic acid metabolism, protein synthesis, cell growth, and nicotine synthesis precursors. This work describes a rapid, sensitive, convenient, green, and cost-effective method for the determination of polyamines in Nicotiana tabacum by ultra high performance liquid chromatography with photodiode array detection. The analytes were derivatized with 3,5-dinitrobenzoyl chloride at low temperature (about 4°C) and then extracted with vortex-assisted liquid-liquid microextraction. The experimental designs based on quarter-fractional factorial design and Doehlert design were used to screen and optimize the important factors in microextraction process. Under the optimal conditions, the method was linear over 0.05-8.00 μg/mL with an r(2) ≥ 0.992 and exhibited good repeatability and reproducibility less than 6.0 and 6.9%, respectively. The limit of detection ranged between 0.013 and 0.029 μg/g. The newly developed method was successfully employed to analyze different leaf samples of Nicotiana tabacum, among which the polyamines contents were found to be very different. Moreover, tyramine, 1,3-diaminopropane, homospermidine, and canavalmine were tentatively identified with the electrospray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry. To our knowledge, this is the first report of identification of canavalmine in Nicotiana Tabacum.

Histamine quantification in human plasma using high resolution accurate mass LC-MS technology

BACKGROUND

Histamine (HA) is a small amine playing an important role in anaphylactic reactions. In order to identify and quantify HA in plasma matrix, different methods have been developed but present several disadvantages. Here, we developed an alternative method using liquid chromatography coupled with an ultra-high resolution and accurate mass instrument, Q Exactive™ (Thermo Fisher) (LCHRMS).

METHODS

The method includes a protein precipitation of plasma samples spiked with HA-d4 as internal standard (IS). LC separation was performed on a C18 Accucore column (100∗2.1mm, 2.6μm) using a mobile phase containing nonafluoropentanoic acid (3nM) and acetonitrile with 0.1% (v/v) formic acid on gradient mode. Separation of analytes was obtained within 10min. Analysis was performed from full scan mode and targeted MS2 mode using a 5ppm mass window. Ion transitions monitored for targeted MS2 mode were 112.0869>95.0607m/z for HA and 116.1120>99.0855m/z for HA-d4. Calibration curves were obtained by adding standard calibration dilution at 1 to 180nM in TrisBSA.

RESULTS

Elution of HA and IS occurred at 4.1min. The method was validated over a range of concentrations from 1nM to 100nM. The intra- and inter-run precisions were <15% for quality controls. Human plasma samples from 30 patients were analyzed by LCHRMS, and the results were highly correlated with those obtained using the gold standard radioimmunoassay (RIA) method.

CONCLUSION

Overall, we demonstrate here that LCHRMS is a sensitive method for histamine quantification in biological human plasmas, suitable for routine use in medical laboratories. In addition, LCHRMS is less time-consuming than RIA, avoids the use of radioactivity, and could then be considered as an alternative quantitative method.

Rapid analysis of biogenic amines from rice wine with isotope-coded derivatization followed by high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

A pair of isotope-coded derivatization reagents, d0-10-methyl-acridone-2-sulfonyl chloride (d0-MASC, light form) and d3-10-methyl-acridone-2-sulfonyl chloride (d3-MASC, heavy form), were used for labeling biogenic amines (BAs). On basis of the isotope-coded derivatization, a global isotope internal standard quantitative method for determining seven BAs by high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) was developed. The d0-MASC and d3-MASC can easily label BAs under mild conditions within 15 min at 50 °C. The obtained light and heavy labeled BAs were monitored by the transitions of [M+H](+) → 208 and [M+H](+) → 211, respectively. Relative quantification of BAs was achieved by calculation of the peak area ratios of d0-MASC/d3-MASC labeled derivatives. Excellent linear responses for relative quantification were observed in the range of 1/10-10/1. The developed method has been successfully applied to the quantification of BAs in Chinese rice wine with recoveries ranging from 94.9% to 104.5%.

A review of the liquid chromatographic methods for the determination of biogenic amines in foods

Biogenic amines (BAs) are biologically active molecules which have aliphatic (putrescine, cadaverine, spermine, spermidine), aromatic (tyramine, phenylethylamine) or heterocyclic (histamine, tryptamine) structures. They can be detected in raw and processed foods which are formed and degraded through several pathways during the metabolic processes of animals, plants and microorganisms. The identification and quantitation procedures of BAs in food samples are very important, because BAs are considered as the indicators of food quality and freshness. The determination of BAs are commonly achieved by separation techniques such as high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), gas chromatography (GC) and capillary electrophoresis (CE). In this article, analysis of BAs in foods were reviewed from 2007 to present.