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Ovbude ST, Sharmeen S, Kyei I, Olupathage H, Jones J, Bell RJ, Powers R, Hage DS. Applications of chromatographic methods in metabolomics: A review. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2024; 1239:124124. [PMID: 38640794 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2024.124124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2023] [Revised: 03/11/2024] [Accepted: 04/10/2024] [Indexed: 04/21/2024]
Abstract
Chromatography is a robust and reliable separation method that can use various stationary phases to separate complex mixtures commonly seen in metabolomics. This review examines the types of chromatography and stationary phases that have been used in targeted or untargeted metabolomics with methods such as mass spectrometry (MS) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. General considerations for sample pretreatment and separations in metabolomics are considered, along with the various supports and separation formats for chromatography that have been used in such work. The types of liquid chromatography (LC) that have been most extensively used in metabolomics will be examined, such as reversed-phase liquid chromatography and hydrophilic liquid interaction chromatography. In addition, other forms of LC that have been used in more limited applications for metabolomics (e.g., ion-exchange, size-exclusion, and affinity methods) will be discussed to illustrate how these techniques may be utilized for new and future research in this field. Multidimensional LC methods are also discussed, as well as the use of gas chromatography and supercritical fluid chromatography in metabolomics. In addition, the roles of chromatography in NMR- vs. MS-based metabolomics are considered. Applications are given within the field of metabolomics for each type of chromatography, along with potential advantages or limitations of these separation methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan T Ovbude
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0304, USA
| | - Sadia Sharmeen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0304, USA
| | - Isaac Kyei
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0304, USA
| | - Harshana Olupathage
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0304, USA
| | - Jacob Jones
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0304, USA
| | - Richard J Bell
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0304, USA
| | - Robert Powers
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0304, USA; Nebraska Center for Integrated Biomolecular Communication, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0304, USA
| | - David S Hage
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0304, USA.
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Enantioresolution and Binding Affinity Studies on Human Serum Albumin: Recent Applications and Trends. CHEMOSENSORS 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/chemosensors9110304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The interaction between proteins and drugs or other bioactive compounds has been widely explored over the past years. Several methods for analysis of this phenomenon have been developed and improved. Nowadays, increasing attention is paid to innovative methods, such as high performance affinity liquid chromatography (HPALC) and affinity capillary electrophoresis (ACE), taking into account various advantages. Moreover, the development of separation methods for the analysis and resolution of chiral drugs has been an area of ongoing interest in analytical and medicinal chemistry research. In addition to bioaffinity binding studies, both HPALC and ACE al-low one to perform other type of analyses, namely, displacement studies and enantioseparation of racemic or enantiomeric mixtures. Actually, proteins used as chiral selectors in chromatographic and electrophoretic methods have unique enantioselective properties demonstrating suitability for the enantioseparation of a large variety of chiral drugs or other bioactive compounds. This review is mainly focused in chromatographic and electrophoretic methods using human serum albumin (HSA), the most abundant plasma protein, as chiral selector for binding affinity analysis and enantioresolution of drugs. For both analytical purposes, updated examples are presented to highlight recent applications and current trends.
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Bai Y, Fan Y, Ge G, Wang F. [Advances in chromatography in the study of drug-plasma protein interactions]. Se Pu 2021; 39:1077-1085. [PMID: 34505429 PMCID: PMC9404221 DOI: 10.3724/sp.j.1123.2021.06028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
小分子药物进入人体血液循环系统后与人血清白蛋白(HSA)、α1 -酸性糖蛋白(AGP)等血浆蛋白存在广泛的相互作用,这些相互作用深刻影响药物在体内的分布及其与靶标蛋白的结合,进而影响药物效应的发挥。深入探究药物与血浆蛋白间的相互作用对于候选药物的成药性优化、新药研发、联合用药的风险评控等意义重大。而发展高效、灵敏、准确的分析检测方法是开展药物-血浆蛋白相互作用研究的关键。近年来,色谱技术由于其高通量、高分离性能、高灵敏度等特点在该领域得到了广泛的应用,包括测定血浆蛋白翻译后修饰对药物结合的影响,多种药物的竞争性结合等。其中,高效亲和色谱(HPAC)和毛细管电泳(CE)应用最为广泛,能够通过多种分析方法获取结合常数、结合位点数、解离速率常数等相互作用信息。该文着重综述了HPAC和CE在药物-血浆蛋白相互作用研究中的常用策略及最新研究进展,包括HPAC中常用的前沿色谱法、竞争洗脱法、超快亲和提取法、峰值分析法和峰衰减分析法,以及CE中常用的亲和毛细管电泳法(ACE)和毛细管电泳前沿分析法(CE-FA)等。最后,该文还对当前色谱方法存在的不足进行了总结,并对色谱技术在药物-血浆蛋白相互作用研究领域的应用前景和发展方向进行了展望。
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Bai
- School of Pharmacy, China Medical University, Shenyang 110122, China.,CAS Key Laboratory of Separation Sciences for Analytical Chemistry, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian 116023, China
| | - Yufan Fan
- Institute of Interdisciplinary Medicine, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Guangbo Ge
- Institute of Interdisciplinary Medicine, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Fangjun Wang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Separation Sciences for Analytical Chemistry, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian 116023, China
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Iftekhar S, Ovbude ST, Hage DS. Kinetic Analysis by Affinity Chromatography. Front Chem 2019; 7:673. [PMID: 31681727 PMCID: PMC6813734 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2019.00673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2019] [Accepted: 09/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Important information on chemical processes in living systems can be obtained by the rates at which these biological interactions occur. This review will discuss several techniques based on traditional and high-performance affinity chromatography that may be used to examine the kinetics of biological reactions. These methods include band-broadening measurements, techniques for peak fitting, split-peak analysis, peak decay studies, and ultrafast affinity extraction. The general principles and theory of each method, as applied to the determination of rate constants, will be discussed. The applications of each approach, along with its advantages and limitations, will also be considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sazia Iftekhar
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, United States
| | - Susan T Ovbude
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, United States
| | - David S Hage
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, United States
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Sun H, Liu J, Li Y, Wang J, Zhang Y. Characterization of the heterogeneous adsorption of three drugs on immobilized bovine serum albumin by adsorption energy distribution. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2019; 1125:121727. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2019.121727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2019] [Revised: 07/10/2019] [Accepted: 07/19/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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Zhang H, Wu ZY, Yang YY, Yang FQ, Li SP. Recent applications of immobilized biomaterials in herbal analysis. J Chromatogr A 2019; 1603:216-230. [PMID: 31277949 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2019.06.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2019] [Revised: 06/22/2019] [Accepted: 06/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Immobilization of biomaterials developed rapidly due to the great promise in improving their stability, activity and even selectivity. In this review, the immobilization strategies of biomaterials, including physical adsorption, encapsulation, covalent attachment, cross-linking and affinity linkage, were briefly introduced. Then, the major emphasis was focused on the reported various types of immobilized biomaterials, including proteins, enzymes, cell membrane and artificial membrane, living cells, carbohydrates and bacteria, used in the herbal analysis for bioactive compound screening, drug-target interaction evaluation and chiral separation. In addition, a series of carrier materials applied in biomaterials immobilization, such as magnetic nanoparticles, metal-organic frameworks, silica capillary column, cellulose filter paper, cell membrane chromatography, immobilized artificial membrane chromatography and hollow fiber, were also discussed. Perspectives on further applications of immobilized biomaterials in herbal analysis were finally presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Zhang
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 401331, PR China
| | - Zhao-Yu Wu
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 401331, PR China
| | - Yi-Yao Yang
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 401331, PR China
| | - Feng-Qing Yang
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 401331, PR China.
| | - Shao-Ping Li
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macao SAR, PR China.
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Alhazmi HA, Javed SA, Ahsan W, Rehman Z, Al Bratty M, El Deeb S, Saleh SF. Investigation of binding behavior of important metal ions to thioredoxin reductase using mobility-shift affinity capillary electrophoresis: A preliminary insight into the development of new metal-based anticancer drugs. Microchem J 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2018.10.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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He X, Sui Y, Wang S. Stepwise frontal affinity chromatography model for drug and protein interaction. Anal Bioanal Chem 2018; 410:5807-5815. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-018-1194-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2018] [Revised: 05/30/2018] [Accepted: 06/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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Li Z, Hage DS. Analysis of stereoselective drug interactions with serum proteins by high-performance affinity chromatography: A historical perspective. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2017; 144:12-24. [PMID: 28094095 PMCID: PMC5505820 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2017.01.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2016] [Revised: 01/06/2017] [Accepted: 01/10/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The interactions of drugs with serum proteins are often stereoselective and can affect the distribution, activity, toxicity and rate of excretion of these drugs in the body. A number of approaches based on affinity chromatography, and particularly high-performance affinity chromatography (HPAC), have been used as tools to study these interactions. This review describes the general principles of affinity chromatography and HPAC as related to their use in drug binding studies. The types of serum agents that have been examined with these methods are also discussed, including human serum albumin, α1-acid glycoprotein, and lipoproteins. This is followed by a description of the various formats based on affinity chromatography and HPAC that have been used to investigate drug interactions with serum proteins and the historical development for each of these formats. Specific techniques that are discussed include zonal elution, frontal analysis, and kinetic methods such as those that make use of band-broadening measurements, peak decay analysis, or ultrafast affinity extraction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhao Li
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, USA
| | - David S Hage
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, USA.
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Hage DS. Analysis of Biological Interactions by Affinity Chromatography: Clinical and Pharmaceutical Applications. Clin Chem 2017; 63:1083-1093. [PMID: 28396561 DOI: 10.1373/clinchem.2016.262253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2016] [Accepted: 12/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The interactions between biochemical and chemical agents in the body are important in many clinical processes. Affinity chromatography and high-performance affinity chromatography (HPAC), in which a column contains an immobilized biologically related binding agent, are 2 methods that can be used to study these interactions. CONTENT This review presents various approaches that can be used in affinity chromatography and HPAC to characterize the strength or rate of a biological interaction, the number and types of sites that are involved in this process, and the interactions between multiple solutes for the same binding agent. A number of applications for these methods are examined, with an emphasis on recent developments and high-performance affinity methods. These applications include the use of these techniques for fundamental studies of biological interactions, high-throughput screening of drugs, work with modified proteins, tools for personalized medicine, and studies of drug-drug competition for a common binding agent. SUMMARY The wide range of formats and detection methods that can be used with affinity chromatography and HPAC for examining biological interactions makes these tools attractive for various clinical and pharmaceutical applications. Future directions in the development of small-scale columns and the coupling of these methods with other techniques, such as mass spectrometry or other separation methods, should continue to increase the flexibility and ease with which these approaches can be used in work involving clinical or pharmaceutical samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- David S Hage
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE.
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Xu X, Wang C, Li H, Li X, Liu B, Singh V, Wang S, Sun L, Gref R, Zhang J. Evaluation of drug loading capabilities of γ-cyclodextrin-metal organic frameworks by high performance liquid chromatography. J Chromatogr A 2017; 1488:37-44. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2017.01.062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2016] [Revised: 01/09/2017] [Accepted: 01/23/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Liu G, Wang P, Li C, Wang J, Sun Z, Zhao X, Zheng X. Confirming therapeutic target of protopine using immobilized β 2 -adrenoceptor coupled with site-directed molecular docking and the target-drug interaction by frontal analysis and injection amount-dependent method. J Mol Recognit 2017; 30. [PMID: 28124461 DOI: 10.1002/jmr.2613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2016] [Revised: 12/17/2016] [Accepted: 01/03/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Drug-protein interaction analysis is pregnant in designing new leads during drug discovery. We prepared the stationary phase containing immobilized β2 -adrenoceptor (β2 -AR) by linkage of the receptor on macroporous silica gel surface through N,N'-carbonyldiimidazole method. The stationary phase was applied in identifying antiasthmatic target of protopine guided by the prediction of site-directed molecular docking. Subsequent application of immobilized β2 -AR in exploring the binding of protopine to the receptor was realized by frontal analysis and injection amount-dependent method. The association constants of protopine to β2 -AR by the 2 methods were (1.00 ± 0.06) × 105 M-1 and (1.52 ± 0.14) × 104 M-1 . The numbers of binding sites were (1.23 ± 0.07) × 10-7 M and (9.09 ± 0.06) × 10-7 M, respectively. These results indicated that β2 -AR is the specific target for therapeutic action of protopine in vivo. The target-drug binding occurred on Ser169 in crystal structure of the receptor. Compared with frontal analysis, injection amount-dependent method is advantageous to drug saving, improvement of sampling efficiency, and performing speed. It has grave potential in high-throughput drug-receptor interaction analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guangxin Liu
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi'an, China
| | - Pei Wang
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi'an, China
| | - Chan Li
- Drug Certificate Center, Shaanxi Food and Drug Administration, Xi'an, China
| | - Jing Wang
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi'an, China
| | - Zhenyu Sun
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi'an, China
| | - Xinfeng Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi'an, China
| | - Xiaohui Zheng
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi'an, China
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Abstract
The development of separation methods for the analysis and resolution of chiral drugs and solutes has been an area of ongoing interest in pharmaceutical research. The use of proteins as chiral binding agents in high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) has been an approach that has received particular attention in such work. This report provides an overview of proteins that have been used as binding agents to create chiral stationary phases (CSPs) and in the use of chromatographic methods to study these materials and protein-based chiral separations. The supports and methods that have been employed to prepare protein-based CSPs will also be discussed and compared. Specific types of CSPs that are considered include those that employ serum transport proteins (e.g., human serum albumin, bovine serum albumin, and alpha1-acid glycoprotein), enzymes (e.g., penicillin G acylase, cellobiohydrolases, and α-chymotrypsin) or other types of proteins (e.g., ovomucoid, antibodies, and avidin or streptavidin). The properties and applications for each type of protein and CSP will also be discussed in terms of their use in chromatography and chiral separations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cong Bi
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0304, USA
| | - Xiwei Zheng
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0304, USA
| | - Shiden Azaria
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0304, USA
| | - Sandya Beeram
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0304, USA
| | - Zhao Li
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0304, USA
| | - David S. Hage
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0304, USA
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Wang C, Wang X, Xu X, Liu B, Xu X, Sun L, Li H, Zhang J. Simultaneous high-throughput determination of interaction kinetics for drugs and cyclodextrins by high performance affinity chromatography with mass spectrometry detection. Anal Chim Acta 2016; 909:75-83. [PMID: 26851087 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2015.12.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2015] [Revised: 12/23/2015] [Accepted: 12/24/2015] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
The individual determination of the apparent dissociation rate constant (kd,app) using high performance affinity chromatography (HPAC) is a tedious process requiring numerous separate tests and massive data fitting, unable to provide the apparent association rate constant (ka) and equilibrium binding constant (Ka). In this study, a HPAC with mass spectrometry detection (HPAC-MS/MS) was employed to determine the drug-cyclodextrin (CD) interaction kinetics with low sample loading quantity (<10 ng per injection for single compound) and high-throughput yield as twenty drugs determined in one injection. The kd,app measured by HPAC-MS/MS approach were 0.89 ± 0.07, 4.34 ± 0.01, 1.48 ± 0.01 and 7.77 ± 0.04 s(-1) for ketoprofen, trimethoprim, indapamide and acetaminophen, with kd,app for acetaminophen consistent with that from the HPAC method with UV detector in our previous studies. For twenty drugs with diverse structures and chemical properties, good correlationship was found between kd,app measured by single compound analysis method and high-throughput HPAC-MS/MS approach, with the correlation coefficient of 0.987 and the significance F less than 0.001. Comprehensive quantification of ka,app, kd,app and Ka values was further performed based on the measurement of kd,app by peak profiling method and Ka by the peak fitting method. And the investigation of the drug-CD interaction kinetics under different conditions indicated that the column temperature and mobile phase composition significantly affected the determination of ka,app, kd,app and Ka while also dependent on the acidity and basicity of drugs. In summary, the high-throughput HPAC-MS/MS approach has been demonstrated high efficiency in determination of the drug-CD primary interaction kinetic parameter, especially, kd,app, being proven as a novel tool in screening the right CD for the solubilization of the right drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caifen Wang
- Center for Drug Delivery Systems, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, China; Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, China
| | - Xiaobo Wang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, China
| | - Xiaonan Xu
- Center for Drug Delivery Systems, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, China; Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, China
| | - Botao Liu
- School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Shanghai Institute of Technology, Shanghai 201418, China
| | - Xu Xu
- School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Shanghai Institute of Technology, Shanghai 201418, China
| | - Lixin Sun
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, China.
| | - Haiyan Li
- Center for Drug Delivery Systems, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, China.
| | - Jiwen Zhang
- Center for Drug Delivery Systems, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, China; School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Shanghai Institute of Technology, Shanghai 201418, China.
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Bi C, Beeram S, Li Z, Zheng X, Hage DS. Kinetic analysis of drug-protein interactions by affinity chromatography. DRUG DISCOVERY TODAY. TECHNOLOGIES 2015; 17:16-21. [PMID: 26724332 DOI: 10.1016/j.ddtec.2015.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2015] [Accepted: 09/14/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Information on the kinetics of drug-protein interactions is of crucial importance in drug discovery and development. Several methods based on affinity chromatography have been developed in recent years to examine the association and dissociation rates of these processes. These techniques include band-broadening measurements, the peak decay method, peak fitting methods, the split-peak method, and free fraction analysis. This review will examine the general principles and applications of these approaches and discuss their use in the characterization, screening and analysis of drug-protein interactions in the body.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cong Bi
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68588, USA
| | - Sandya Beeram
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68588, USA
| | - Zhao Li
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68588, USA
| | - Xiwei Zheng
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68588, USA
| | - David S Hage
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68588, USA.
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Alhazmi HA, Deeb SE, Nachbar M, Redweik S, Albishri HM, El-Hady DA, Wätzig H. Optimization of affinity capillary electrophoresis for routine investigations of protein-metal ion interactions. J Sep Sci 2015; 38:3629-37. [DOI: 10.1002/jssc.201500182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2015] [Revised: 07/25/2015] [Accepted: 07/25/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hassan A. Alhazmi
- Institute of Medicinal and Pharmaceutical Chemistry; TU Braunschweig; Braunschweig Germany
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of pharmacy; Jazan University; Jazan Saudi Arabia
| | - Sami El Deeb
- Institute of Medicinal and Pharmaceutical Chemistry; TU Braunschweig; Braunschweig Germany
| | - Markus Nachbar
- Institute of Medicinal and Pharmaceutical Chemistry; TU Braunschweig; Braunschweig Germany
| | - Sabine Redweik
- Institute of Medicinal and Pharmaceutical Chemistry; TU Braunschweig; Braunschweig Germany
| | - Hassan M. Albishri
- Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science; King Abdulaziz University; Jeddah Saudi Arabia
| | - Deia Abd El-Hady
- Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science; University of Jeddah; Jeddah Saudi Arabia
- Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science; Assiut University; Assiut Egypt
| | - Hermann Wätzig
- Institute of Medicinal and Pharmaceutical Chemistry; TU Braunschweig; Braunschweig Germany
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Zheng X, Bi C, Li Z, Podariu M, Hage DS. Analytical methods for kinetic studies of biological interactions: A review. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2015; 113:163-80. [PMID: 25700721 PMCID: PMC4516701 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2015.01.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2014] [Revised: 01/16/2015] [Accepted: 01/19/2015] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
The rates at which biological interactions occur can provide important information concerning the mechanism and behavior of these processes in living systems. This review discusses several analytical methods that can be used to examine the kinetics of biological interactions. These techniques include common or traditional methods such as stopped-flow analysis and surface plasmon resonance spectroscopy, as well as alternative methods based on affinity chromatography and capillary electrophoresis. The general principles and theory behind these approaches are examined, and it is shown how each technique can be utilized to provide information on the kinetics of biological interactions. Examples of applications are also given for each method. In addition, a discussion is provided on the relative advantages or potential limitations of each technique regarding its use in kinetic studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiwei Zheng
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68588, USA
| | - Cong Bi
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68588, USA
| | - Zhao Li
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68588, USA
| | - Maria Podariu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68588, USA
| | - David S Hage
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68588, USA.
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18
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Zhang J, Li H, Sun L, Wang C. Determination of the kinetic rate constant of cyclodextrin supramolecular systems by high-performance affinity chromatography. Methods Mol Biol 2015; 1286:309-19. [PMID: 25749964 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-2447-9_24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
The kinetics of the association and dissociation are fundamental kinetic processes for the host-guest interactions (such as the drug-target and drug-excipient interactions) and the in vivo performance of supramolecules. With advantages of rapid speed, high precision and ease of automation, the high-performance affinity chromatography (HPAC) is one of the best techniques to measure the interaction kinetics of weak to moderate affinities, such as the typical host-guest interactions of drug and cyclodextrins by using a cyclodextrin-immobilized column. The measurement involves the equilibration of the cyclodextrin column, the upload and elution of the samples (non-retained substances and retained solutes) at different flow rates on the cyclodextrin and control column, and data analysis. It has been indicated that cyclodextrin-immobilized chromatography is a cost-efficient high-throughput tool for the measurement of (small molecule) drug-cyclodextrin interactions as well as the dissociation of other supramolecules with relatively weak, fast, and extensive interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiwen Zhang
- Center for Drug Delivery Systems, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 555 of Zuchongzhi Road, Shanghai, 201203, China,
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19
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Zheng X, Li Z, Beeram S, Podariu M, Matsuda R, Pfaunmiller EL, White CJ, Carter N, Hage DS. Analysis of biomolecular interactions using affinity microcolumns: a review. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2014; 968:49-63. [PMID: 24572459 PMCID: PMC4112177 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2014.01.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2013] [Revised: 01/16/2014] [Accepted: 01/19/2014] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Affinity chromatography has become an important tool for characterizing biomolecular interactions. The use of affinity microcolumns, which contain immobilized binding agents and have volumes in the mid-to-low microliter range, has received particular attention in recent years. Potential advantages of affinity microcolumns include the many analysis and detection formats that can be used with these columns, as well as the need for only small amounts of supports and immobilized binding agents. This review examines how affinity microcolumns have been used to examine biomolecular interactions. Both capillary-based microcolumns and short microcolumns are considered. The use of affinity microcolumns with zonal elution and frontal analysis methods are discussed. The techniques of peak decay analysis, ultrafast affinity extraction, split-peak analysis, and band-broadening studies are also explored. The principles of these methods are examined and various applications are provided to illustrate the use of these methods with affinity microcolumns. It is shown how these techniques can be utilized to provide information on the binding strength and kinetics of an interaction, as well as on the number and types of binding sites. It is further demonstrated how information on competition or displacement effects can be obtained by these methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiwei Zheng
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0304, USA
| | - Zhao Li
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0304, USA
| | - Sandya Beeram
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0304, USA
| | - Maria Podariu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0304, USA
| | - Ryan Matsuda
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0304, USA
| | - Erika L Pfaunmiller
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0304, USA
| | - Christopher J White
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0304, USA
| | - NaTasha Carter
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0304, USA
| | - David S Hage
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0304, USA.
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20
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Matsuda R, Bi C, Anguizola J, Sobansky M, Rodriguez E, Vargas Badilla J, Zheng X, Hage B, Hage DS. Studies of metabolite-protein interactions: a review. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2014; 966:48-58. [PMID: 24321277 PMCID: PMC4032809 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2013.11.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2013] [Revised: 11/14/2013] [Accepted: 11/18/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The study of metabolomics can provide valuable information about biochemical pathways and processes at the molecular level. There have been many reports that have examined the structure, identity and concentrations of metabolites in biological systems. However, the binding of metabolites with proteins is also of growing interest. This review examines past reports that have looked at the binding of various types of metabolites with proteins. An overview of the techniques that have been used to characterize and study metabolite-protein binding is first provided. This is followed by examples of studies that have investigated the binding of hormones, fatty acids, drugs or other xenobiotics, and their metabolites with transport proteins and receptors. These examples include reports that have considered the structure of the resulting solute-protein complexes, the nature of the binding sites, the strength of these interactions, the variations in these interactions with solute structure, and the kinetics of these reactions. The possible effects of metabolic diseases on these processes, including the impact of alterations in the structure and function of proteins, are also considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan Matsuda
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0304, USA
| | - Cong Bi
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0304, USA
| | - Jeanethe Anguizola
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0304, USA
| | - Matthew Sobansky
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0304, USA
| | - Elliott Rodriguez
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0304, USA
| | - John Vargas Badilla
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0304, USA
| | - Xiwei Zheng
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0304, USA
| | - Benjamin Hage
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0304, USA
| | - David S Hage
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0304, USA.
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21
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Wang C, Ge J, Zhang J, Guo T, Chi L, He Z, Xu X, York P, Sun L, Li H. Multianalyte determination of the kinetic rate constants of drug-cyclodextrin supermolecules by high performance affinity chromatography. J Chromatogr A 2014; 1359:287-95. [PMID: 25069744 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2014.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2014] [Revised: 07/03/2014] [Accepted: 07/07/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The kinetics of the dissociation is fundamental to the formation and the in vivo performance of cyclodextrin supramolecules. The individual determination of the apparent dissociation rate constant (kd,app) using high performance affinity chromatography (HPAC) is a tedious process requiring numerous separate studies and massive data fitting. In this study, the multianalyte approach was employed to simultaneously measure the kd,app values of three drugs through one injection based on the investigation of the dependence of drug-cyclodextrin interaction kinetics on the mobile phase composition. As a result, the kd,app values increased when decreasing the ion strength, increasing the ionization of drugs and adding extra organic solvents. The values of kd,app for acetaminophen, phenacetin and S-flurbiprofen estimated by the multianalyte approach were 8.54±1.81, 5.36±0.94 and 0.17±0.02s(-1), respectively, which were in good agreement with those determined separately (8.31±0.58, 5.01±0.42 and 0.15±0.01s(-1)). For both of the single and multiple flow rate peak profiling methods, the results of the multianalyte approach were statistically equivalent with that of the single compound analysis for all of the three drugs (p>0.05). The multianalyte approach can be employed for the efficient evaluation of the drug-cyclodextrin kinetics with less variance caused by cyclodextrin column bleeding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caifen Wang
- Center for Drug Delivery Systems, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, China; School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, China
| | - Jingwen Ge
- Center for Drug Delivery Systems, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, China; School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, China
| | - Jiwen Zhang
- Center for Drug Delivery Systems, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, China; School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Shanghai Institute of Technology, Shanghai 201418, China
| | - Tao Guo
- Center for Drug Delivery Systems, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Liandi Chi
- Center for Drug Delivery Systems, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Zhonggui He
- School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, China
| | - Xu Xu
- School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Shanghai Institute of Technology, Shanghai 201418, China
| | - Peter York
- University of Bradford, Bradford, West Yorkshire BD7 1DP, United Kingdom.
| | - Lixin Sun
- School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, China.
| | - Haiyan Li
- Center for Drug Delivery Systems, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, China.
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22
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Zhao X, Li Q, Huang J, Zheng J, Zheng X, Li Z, Zhang Y. EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE AND MOBILE PHASE COMPOSITION ON THE INTERACTION BETWEEN BERBERINE AND IMMOBILIZED β2-ADRENOCEPTOR BY HIGH PERFORMANCE AFFINITY CHROMATOGRAPHY. J LIQ CHROMATOGR R T 2013. [DOI: 10.1080/10826076.2012.734001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xinfeng Zhao
- a College of Life Sciences , Northwest University , Xi'an , China
| | - Qian Li
- a College of Life Sciences , Northwest University , Xi'an , China
| | - Jingjing Huang
- a College of Life Sciences , Northwest University , Xi'an , China
| | - Jianbin Zheng
- b Institute of Analytical Science , Northwest University , Xi'an , China
| | - Xiaohui Zheng
- a College of Life Sciences , Northwest University , Xi'an , China
| | - Zijian Li
- c Institute of Vascular Medicine, Peking University, Third Hospital and Key Laboratory of Molecular Cardiovascular Sciences, Ministry of Education , Beijing , China
| | - Youyi Zhang
- c Institute of Vascular Medicine, Peking University, Third Hospital and Key Laboratory of Molecular Cardiovascular Sciences, Ministry of Education , Beijing , China
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23
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Importance of relating efficacy measures to unbound drug concentrations for anti-infective agents. Clin Microbiol Rev 2013; 26:274-88. [PMID: 23554417 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.00092-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
For the optimization of dosing regimens of anti-infective agents, it is imperative to have a good understanding of pharmacokinetics (PK) and pharmacodynamics (PD). Whenever possible, drug efficacy needs to be related to unbound concentrations at the site of action. For anti-infective drugs, the infection site is typically located outside plasma, and a drug must diffuse through capillary membranes to reach its target. Disease- and drug-related factors can contribute to differential tissue distribution. As a result, the assumption that the plasma concentration of drugs represents a suitable surrogate of tissue concentrations may lead to erroneous conclusions. Quantifying drug exposure in tissues represents an opportunity to relate the pharmacologically active concentrations to an observed pharmacodynamic parameter, such as the MIC. Selection of an appropriate specimen to sample and the advantages and limitations of the available sampling techniques require careful consideration. Ultimately, the goal will be to assess the appropriateness of a drug and dosing regimen for a specific pathogen and infection.
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24
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Li H, Ge J, Guo T, Yang S, He Z, York P, Sun L, Xu X, Zhang J. Determination of the kinetic rate constant of cyclodextrin supramolecular systems by high performance affinity chromatography. J Chromatogr A 2013; 1305:139-48. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2013.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2013] [Revised: 05/14/2013] [Accepted: 07/02/2013] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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25
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Pfaunmiller EL, Hartmann M, Dupper CM, Soman S, Hage DS. Optimization of human serum albumin monoliths for chiral separations and high-performance affinity chromatography. J Chromatogr A 2012; 1269:198-207. [PMID: 23010249 PMCID: PMC3578315 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2012.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2012] [Revised: 09/03/2012] [Accepted: 09/04/2012] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Various organic-based monoliths were prepared and optimized for immobilization of the protein human serum albumin (HSA) as a binding agent for chiral separations and high-performance affinity chromatography. These monoliths contained co-polymers based on glycidyl methacrylate (GMA) and ethylene glycol dimethacrylate (EDMA) or GMA and trimethylolpropane trimethacrylate (TRIM). A mixture of cyclohexanol and 1-dodecanol was used as the porogen, with the ratio of these solvents being varied along with the polymerization temperature to generate a library of monoliths. These monoliths were used with both the Schiff base and epoxy immobilization methods and measured for their final content of HSA. Monoliths showing the highest protein content were further evaluated in chromatographic studies using R/S-warfarin and d/l-tryptophan as model chiral solutes. A 2.6-2.7-fold increase in HSA content was obtained in the final monoliths when compared to similar HSA monoliths prepared according to the literature. The increased protein content made it possible for the new monoliths to provide higher retention and/or two-fold faster separations for the tested solutes when using 4.6mm i.d.× 50 mm columns. These monoliths were also used to create 4.6mm i.d.× 10 mm HSA microcolumns that could separate the same chiral solutes in only 1.5-6.0 min. The approaches used in this study could be extended to the separation of other chiral solutes and to the optimization of organic monoliths for use with additional proteins as binding agents.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mahli Hartmann
- Chemistry Department, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, USA
| | | | - Sony Soman
- Chemistry Department, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, USA
| | - David S. Hage
- Chemistry Department, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, USA
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26
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Yang GX, Li X, Snyder M. Investigating metabolite-protein interactions: an overview of available techniques. Methods 2012; 57:459-66. [PMID: 22750303 PMCID: PMC3448827 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymeth.2012.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2012] [Revised: 06/18/2012] [Accepted: 06/21/2012] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Metabolites comprise the molar majority of chemical substances in living cells, and metabolite-protein interactions are expected to be quite common. Many interactions have already been identified and have been shown to be involved in the regulation of different types of cellular processes including signaling events, enzyme activities, protein localizations and interactions. Recent technological advances have greatly facilitated the detection of metabolite-protein interactions at high sensitivity and some of these have been applied on a large scale. In this manuscript, we review the available in vitro, in silico and in vivo technologies for mapping small-molecule-protein interactions. Although some of these were developed for drug-protein interactions they can be applied for mapping metabolite-protein interactions. Information gained from the use of these approaches can be applied to the manipulation of cellular processes and therapeutic applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grace Xiaolu Yang
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford CA
| | - Xiyan Li
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA
| | - Michael Snyder
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA
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27
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Hage DS, Anguizola JA, Bi C, Li R, Matsuda R, Papastavros E, Pfaunmiller E, Vargas J, Zheng X. Pharmaceutical and biomedical applications of affinity chromatography: recent trends and developments. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2012; 69:93-105. [PMID: 22305083 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2012.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2011] [Revised: 01/04/2012] [Accepted: 01/06/2012] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
Affinity chromatography is a separation technique that has become increasingly important in work with biological samples and pharmaceutical agents. This method is based on the use of a biologically related agent as a stationary phase to selectively retain analytes or to study biological interactions. This review discusses the basic principles behind affinity chromatography and examines recent developments that have occurred in the use of this method for biomedical and pharmaceutical analysis. Techniques based on traditional affinity supports are discussed, but an emphasis is placed on methods in which affinity columns are used as part of HPLC systems or in combination with other analytical methods. General formats for affinity chromatography that are considered include step elution schemes, weak affinity chromatography, affinity extraction and affinity depletion. Specific separation techniques that are examined include lectin affinity chromatography, boronate affinity chromatography, immunoaffinity chromatography, and immobilized metal ion affinity chromatography. Approaches for the study of biological interactions by affinity chromatography are also presented, such as the measurement of equilibrium constants, rate constants, or competition and displacement effects. In addition, related developments in the use of immobilized enzyme reactors, molecularly imprinted polymers, dye ligands and aptamers are briefly considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- David S Hage
- Chemistry Department, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68588-0304, USA.
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