1
|
Gaida M, Stefanuto PH, Focant JF. Theoretical modeling and machine learning-based data processing workflows in comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography-A review. J Chromatogr A 2023; 1711:464467. [PMID: 37871505 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2023.464467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2023] [Revised: 10/15/2023] [Accepted: 10/17/2023] [Indexed: 10/25/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography (GC × GC) has been gradually gaining prominence as a preferred method for the analysis of complex samples due to its higher peak capacity and resolution power compared to conventional gas chromatography (GC). Nonetheless, to fully benefit from the capabilities of GC × GC, a holistic approach to method development and data processing is essential for a successful and informative analysis. Method development enables the fine-tuning of the chromatographic separation, resulting in high-quality data. While generating such data is pivotal, it does not necessarily guarantee that meaningful information will be extracted from it. To this end, the first part of this manuscript reviews the importance of theoretical modeling in achieving good optimization of the separation conditions, ultimately improving the quality of the chromatographic separation. Multiple theoretical modeling approaches are discussed, with a special focus on thermodynamic-based modeling. The second part of this review highlights the importance of establishing robust data processing workflows, with a special emphasis on the use of advanced data processing tools such as, Machine Learning (ML) algorithms. Three widely used ML algorithms are discussed: Random Forest (RF), Support Vector Machine (SVM), and Partial Least Square-Discriminate Analysis (PLS-DA), highlighting their role in discovery-based analysis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Meriem Gaida
- Organic and Biological Analytical Chemistry Group (OBiAChem), MolSys Research Unit, Liège University, Belgium
| | - Pierre-Hugues Stefanuto
- Organic and Biological Analytical Chemistry Group (OBiAChem), MolSys Research Unit, Liège University, Belgium
| | - Jean-François Focant
- Organic and Biological Analytical Chemistry Group (OBiAChem), MolSys Research Unit, Liège University, Belgium
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Milani NBL, van Gilst E, Pirok BWJ, Schoenmakers PJ. Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography- A discussion on recent innovations. J Sep Sci 2023; 46:e2300304. [PMID: 37654057 DOI: 10.1002/jssc.202300304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2023] [Revised: 08/16/2023] [Accepted: 08/19/2023] [Indexed: 09/02/2023]
Abstract
Although comprehensive 2-D GC is an established and often applied analytical method, the field is still highly dynamic thanks to a remarkable number of innovations. In this review, we discuss a number of recent developments in comprehensive 2-D GC technology. A variety of modulation methods are still being actively investigated and many exciting improvements are discussed in this review. We also review interesting developments in detection methods, retention modeling, and data analysis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nino B L Milani
- Van't Hoff Institute for Molecular Science (HIMS), University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Eric van Gilst
- Van't Hoff Institute for Molecular Science (HIMS), University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Bob W J Pirok
- Van't Hoff Institute for Molecular Science (HIMS), University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Peter J Schoenmakers
- Van't Hoff Institute for Molecular Science (HIMS), University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Gaida M, Franchina FA, Stefanuto PH, Focant JF. Top-Down Approach to Retention Time Prediction in Comprehensive Two-Dimensional Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry. Anal Chem 2022; 94:17081-17089. [PMID: 36444996 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.2c03107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
In this contribution, we describe a novel modeling approach to predicting retention times (tr) in comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled to time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC × GC-ToF-MS) with a particular emphasis on the second-dimension (2D) retention time predictions (2tr). This approach is referred to as a "top-down" approach in that it breaks down the complete GC × GC separation into two independent one-dimensional gas chromatography separations (1D-GC). In this regard, both dimensions, that is, first dimension (1D) and second dimension (2D) are treated separately, and the cryogenic modulator is simply considered as a second consecutive injection device. Separate 1D-GC tr predictions are performed on both dimensions using the same flow rate as the one deployed in the conventional GC × GC system. The separate tr predictions are then combined to account for the two-dimensional separation. This model was applied to 24 analytes from 2 standard mixtures (Grob Test Mix and Fragrance Materials Test Mix) and assessed across 9 GC × GC chromatographic conditions. The experimental and predicted chromatographic retention space occupations were assessed by using the convex hull approach defined by the Delaunay triangulation. The predicted percentage of space occupation corresponded favorably with the experimental values. Furthermore, the top-down approach enabled an accurate prediction of the 2tr of all investigated analytes, providing an average 2tr modeling error of 0.26 ± 0.01 s.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Meriem Gaida
- Molecular Systems, Organic and Biological Analytical Chemistry Group, University of Liège, Allée du Six Août, 11, B6c, 4000Liège, Belgium
| | - Flavio A Franchina
- Department of Chemistry, Pharmaceutical, and Agricultural Sciences, University of Ferrara, via L. Borsari 46, 44121Ferrara, Italy
| | - Pierre-Hugues Stefanuto
- Molecular Systems, Organic and Biological Analytical Chemistry Group, University of Liège, Allée du Six Août, 11, B6c, 4000Liège, Belgium
| | - Jean-François Focant
- Molecular Systems, Organic and Biological Analytical Chemistry Group, University of Liège, Allée du Six Août, 11, B6c, 4000Liège, Belgium
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Numerical simulation of the sorption phenomena during the transport of VOCs inside a capillary GC column. Chem Eng Sci 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ces.2021.116445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
|
5
|
Jaramillo R, Dorman FL. Thermodynamic modeling of comprehensive two dimensional gas chromatography isovolatility curves for second dimension retention indices based analyte identification. J Chromatogr A 2020; 1622:461111. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2020.461111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2020] [Revised: 04/02/2020] [Accepted: 04/03/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
|
6
|
Retention time prediction of hydrocarbons in cryogenically modulated comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography: A method development and translation application. J Chromatogr A 2020; 1612:460696. [PMID: 31892412 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2019.460696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2019] [Revised: 11/06/2019] [Accepted: 11/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Thermodynamic modeling of GC × GC separations provides a tool for rapid method evaluation and optimization. Separations of 95 hydrocarbons on two cryogenically modulated GC × GC systems (atmospheric outlet and vacuum outlet) are modeled, displaying average second dimension retention time modeling absolute errors of 0.17 s and 0.12 s respectively, and generating modeled chromatograms which sufficiently represent experimental data. A web-based GC × GC modeling routine is presented which allows users to model separations, currently focused on hydrocarbons, with full control over all system parameters. The method translation capabilities of the application are further demonstrated by replicating Piotrowski et al.'s GC × GC-HRT temporal distribution plots of hydraulic fracturing flowback fluid hydrocarbons [28].
Collapse
|
7
|
Mommers J, van der Wal S. Column Selection and Optimization for Comprehensive Two-Dimensional Gas Chromatography: A Review. Crit Rev Anal Chem 2020; 51:183-202. [DOI: 10.1080/10408347.2019.1707643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- John Mommers
- DSM Material Science Center, Geleen, The Netherlands
| | - Sjoerd van der Wal
- Polymer-Analysis Group, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Stevenson KA, Blumberg LM, Harynuk JJ. Thermodynamics-based retention maps to guide column choices for comprehensive multi-dimensional gas chromatography. Anal Chim Acta 2019; 1086:133-141. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2019.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2019] [Revised: 08/01/2019] [Accepted: 08/02/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
|
9
|
Stevenson KAJM, Harynuk JJ. Thermodynamics-based modelling of gas chromatography separations across column geometries and systems, including the prediction of peak widths. J Sep Sci 2019; 42:2013-2022. [PMID: 30964226 DOI: 10.1002/jssc.201801294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2018] [Revised: 02/26/2019] [Accepted: 03/30/2019] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Thermodynamics-based models have been demonstrated to be useful for predicting retention time and peak widths in gas chromatography and two-dimensional gas chromatography separations. However, the collection of data to train the models can be time consuming, which lessens the practical utility of the method. In this contribution, a method for obtaining thermodynamic-based data to predict peak widths in temperature-programmed gas chromatography is presented. Experimental work to collect data for peak width prediction is identical to that required to collect data for retention time prediction using approaches that we have presented previously. Using this combined approach, chromatograms including retention times and peak widths are predicted with very high accuracy. Typical errors in retention time are < 0.5%, while errors in peak width are typically < 5% as demonstrated using polycycic aromatic hydrocarbons and a mixture containing compounds with aldehyde, ketone, alkene, alkane, alcohol, and ester functionalities.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - James J Harynuk
- Department of Chemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Retention time prediction in thermally modulated comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography: Correcting second dimension retention time modeling error. J Chromatogr A 2018; 1581-1582:116-124. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2018.10.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2018] [Revised: 10/25/2018] [Accepted: 10/29/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
|
11
|
Wu L, Duan X, Liu C, Zhang G, Li QX. Phenomenon of dual- and single-retention behaviors of solutes and its validation by computational simulation in linear programmed temperature gas chromatography. J Sep Sci 2016; 39:2785-95. [PMID: 27241084 DOI: 10.1002/jssc.201600236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2016] [Revised: 05/16/2016] [Accepted: 05/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
The current theory of programmed temperature gas chromatography considers that solutes are focused by the stationary phase at the column head completely and does not explicitly recognize the different effects of initial temperature (To ) and heating rate (rT ) on the retention time or temperature of a homologue series. In the present study, n-alkanes, 1-alkenes, 1-alkyl alcohols, alkyl benzenes, and fatty acid methyl esters standards were used as model chemicals and were separated on two nonpolar columns, one moderately polar column and one polar column. Effects of To and rT on the retention of nonstationary phase focusing solutes can be explicitly described with isothermal and cubic equation models, respectively. When the solutes were in the stationary phase focusing status, the single-retention behavior of solutes was observed. It is simple, dependent upon rT only and can be well described by the cubic equation model that was visualized through four sequential slope analyses. These observed dual- and single-retention behaviors of solutes were validated by various experimental data, physical properties, and computational simulation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Liejun Wu
- Department of Molecular Biosciences and Bioengineering, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, USA
| | - Xiaojuan Duan
- Qingdao Entry-Exit Inspection and Quarantine Bureau, Qingdao, China
| | - Chuanyu Liu
- Institute of Oceanography, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
| | - Guangxiang Zhang
- Office of Biostatistics and Quantitative Health Sciences, John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, USA
| | - Qing X Li
- Department of Molecular Biosciences and Bioengineering, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, USA
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Zhang W, Zhu S, He S, Wang Y. Screening of oil sources by using comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography/time-of-flight mass spectrometry and multivariate statistical analysis. J Chromatogr A 2015; 1380:162-70. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2014.12.068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2014] [Revised: 12/19/2014] [Accepted: 12/22/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
|
13
|
Quantitative structure–retention relationship modeling of gas chromatographic retention times based on thermodynamic data. J Chromatogr A 2014; 1358:225-31. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2014.06.071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2014] [Revised: 06/18/2014] [Accepted: 06/22/2014] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
|
14
|
Kulsing C, Nolvachai Y, Zeng AX, Chin ST, Mitrevski B, Marriott PJ. From Molecular Structures of Ionic Liquids to Predicted Retention of Fatty Acid Methyl Esters in Comprehensive Two-Dimensional Gas Chromatography. Chempluschem 2014. [DOI: 10.1002/cplu.201300410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
|
15
|
McGinitie TM, Ebrahimi-Najafabadi H, Harynuk JJ. Rapid determination of thermodynamic parameters from one-dimensional programmed-temperature gas chromatography for use in retention time prediction in comprehensive multidimensional chromatography. J Chromatogr A 2014; 1325:204-12. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2013.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2013] [Revised: 12/02/2013] [Accepted: 12/03/2013] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
|
16
|
Interpretation of comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography data using advanced chemometrics. Trends Analyt Chem 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2013.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
|
17
|
Seeley JV, Seeley SK. Multidimensional Gas Chromatography: Fundamental Advances and New Applications. Anal Chem 2012; 85:557-78. [DOI: 10.1021/ac303195u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 183] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- John V. Seeley
- Oakland University, Department of Chemistry, Rochester, Michigan, 48309
| | - Stacy K. Seeley
- Kettering University, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, 1700 University Avenue,
Flint, Michigan, 48504
| |
Collapse
|